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ropeans。 The Spaniards pursued all their great men with it； embittered their lives； and generally succeeded in putting an early stop to their successes。* With the French； who are essentially a southern people； the double education of despotism and Catholicism has； in spite of their impulsive temperament； made submission and endurance the common character of the people； and their most received notion of wisdom and excellence： and if envy of one another； and of all superiority； is not more rife among them than it is； the circumstance must be ascribed to the many valuable counteracting elements in the French character； and most of all to the great individual energy which； though less persistent and more intermittent than in the self…helping and struggling Anglo…Saxons； has nevertheless manifested itself among the French in nearly every direction in which the operation of their institutions has been favourable to it。
* I limit the expression to past time； because I would say nothing derogatory of a great； and now at last a free； people； who are entering into the general movement of European progress with a vigour which bids fair to make up rapidly the ground they have lost。 No one can doubt what Spanish intellect and energy are capable of； and their faults as a people are chiefly those for which freedom and industrial ardour are a real specific。
There are； no doubt； in all countries； really contented characters； who not merely do not seek； but do not desire； what they do not already possess； and these naturally bear no ill…will towards such as have apparently a more favoured lot。 But the great mass of seeming contentment is real discontent； combined with indolence or self…indulgence； which； while taking no legitimate means of raising itself； delights in bringing others down to its own level。 And if we look narrowly even at the cases of innocent contentment； we perceive that they only win our admiration when the indifference is solely to improvement in outward circumstances； and there is a striving for perpetual advancement in spiritual worth； or at least a disinterested zeal to benefit others。 The contented man； or the contented family； who have no ambition to make any one else happier； to promote the good of their country or their neighbourhood； or to improve themselves in moral excellence； excite in us neither admiration nor approval。 We rightly ascribe this sort of contentment to mere unmanliness and want of spirit。 The content which we approve is an ability to do cheerfully without what cannot be had； a just appreciation of the comparative value of different objects of desire； and a willing renunciation of the less when incompatible with the greater。 These； however； are excellences more natural to the character； in proportion as it is actively engaged in the attempt to improve its own or some other lot。 He who is continually measuring his energy against difficulties learns what are the difficulties insuperable to him； and what are those which； though he might overcome； the success is not worth the cost。 He whose thoughts and activities are all needed for； and habitually employed in； practicable and useful enterprises； is the person of all others least likely to let his mind dwell with brooding discontent upon things either not worth attaining； or which are not so to him。 Thus the active； self…helping character is not only intrinsically the best； but is the likeliest to acquire all that is really excellent or desirable in the opposite type。 The striving； go…ahead character of England and the United States is only a fit subject of disapproving criticism on account of the very secondary objects on which it commonly expends its strength。 In itself it is the foundation of the best hopes for the general improvement of mankind。 It has been acutely remarked that whenever anything goes amiss the habitual impulse of French people is to say； 〃ll faut de la patience〃； and of English people； 〃What a shame。〃 The people who think it a shame when anything goes wrong… who rush to the conclusion that the evil could and ought to have been prevented； are those who； in the long run； do most to make the world better。 If the desires are low placed； if they extend to little beyond physical comfort； and the show of riches； the immediate results of the energy will not be much more than the continual extension of man's power over material objects； but even this makes room； and prepares the mechanical appliances； for the greatest intellectual and social achievements； and while the energy is there； some persons will apply it； and it will be applied more and more； to the perfecting not of outward circumstances alone； but of man's inward nature。 Inactivity； unaspiringness； absence of desire； are a more fatal hindrance to improvement than any misdirection of energy； and are that through which alone； when existing in the mass； any very formidable misdirection by an energetic few becomes possible。 It is this； mainly； which retains in a savage or semi…savage state the great majority of the human race。 Now there can be no kind of doubt that the passive type of character is favoured by the government of one or a few； and the active self…helping type by that of the Many。 Irresponsible rulers need the quiescence of the ruled more than they need any activity but that which they can compel。 Submissiveness to the prescriptions of men as necessities of nature is the lesson inculcated by all governments upon those who are wholly without participation in them。 The will of superiors； and the law as the will of superiors； must be passively yielded to。 But no men are mere instruments or materials in the hands of their rulers who have will or spirit or a spring of internal activity in the rest of their proceedings： and any manifestation of these qualities； instead of receiving encouragement from despots； has to get itself forgiven by them。 Even when irresponsible rulers are not sufficiently conscious of danger from the mental activity of their subjects to be desirous of repressing it； the position itself is a repression。 Endeavour is even more effectually restrained by the certainty of its impotence than by any positive discouragement。 Between subjection to the will of others； and the virtues of self…help and self…government； there is a natural incompatibility。 This is more or less complete； according as the bondage is strained or relaxed。 Rulers differ very much in the length to which they carry the control of the free agency of their subjects； or the supersession of it by managing their business for them。 But the difference is in degree； not in principle； and the best despots often go the greatest lengths in chaining up the free agency of their subjects。 A bad despot； when his own personal indulgences have been provided for； may sometimes be willing to let the people alone； but a good despot insists on doing them good； by making them do their own business in a better way than they themselves know of。 The regulations which restricted to fixed processes all the leading branches of French manufactures were the work of the great Colbert。 Very different is the state of the human faculties where a human being feels himself under no other external restraint than the necessities of nature； or mandates of society which he has his share in imposing； and which it is open to him； if he thinks them wrong； publicly to dissent from； and exert himself actively to get altered。 No doubt； under a government partially popular； this freedom may be exercised even by those who are not partakers in the full privileges of citizenship。 But it is a great additional stimulus to any one's self…help and self…reliance when he starts from even ground； and has not to feel that his success depends on the impression he can make upon the sentiments and dispositions of a body of whom he is not one。 It is a great discouragement to an individual； and a still greater one to a class； to be left out of the constitution； to be reduced to plead from outside the door to the arbiters of their destiny； not taken into consultation within。 The maximum of the invigorating effect of freedom upon the character is only obtained when the person acted on either is； or is looking forward to becoming； a citizen as fully privileged as any other。 What is still more important than even this matter of feeling is the practical discipline which the character obtains from the occasional demand made upon the citizens to exercise； for a time and in their turn； some social function。 It is not sufficiently considered how little there is in most men's ordinary life to give any largeness either to their conceptions or to their sentiments。 Their work is a routine； not a labour of love； but of self…interest in the most elementary form； the satisfaction of daily wants； neither the thing done； nor the process of doing it； introduces the mind to thoughts or feelings extending beyond individuals； if instructive books are within their reach； there is no stimulus to read them； and in most cases the individual has no access to any person of cultivation much superior to his own。 Giving him something to do for the public； supplies； in a measure； all these deficiencies。 If circumstances allow the amount of public duty assigned him to be considerab