按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
principles of our government；〃 which you had been so kind as to send
me； and for which I pray you to accept my thanks。 The difficulties
of getting new works in our situation； inland and without a single
bookstore； are such as had prevented my obtaining a copy before； and
letters which had accumulated during my absence； and were calling for
answers； have not yet permitted me to give to the whole a thorough
reading； yet certain that you and I could not think differently on
the fundamentals of rightful government； I was impatient； and availed
myself of the intervals of repose from the writing table； to obtain a
cursory idea of the body of the work。
I see in it much matter for profound reflection； much which
should confirm our adhesion； in practice； to the good principles of
our constitution； and fix our attention on what is yet to be made
good。 The sixth section on the good moral principles of our
government； I found so interesting and replete with sound principles；
as to postpone my letter…writing to its thorough perusal and
consideration。 Besides much other good matter； it settles
unanswerably the right of instructing representatives； and their duty
to obey。 The system of banking we have both equally and ever
reprobated。 I contemplate it as a blot left in all our
constitutions； which； if not covered； will end in their destruction；
which is already hit by the gamblers in corruption； and is sweeping
away in its progress the fortunes and morals of our citizens。
Funding I consider as limited； rightfully； to a redemption of the
debt within the lives of a majority of the generation contracting it；
every generation coming equally； by the laws of the Creator of the
world； to the free possession of the earth he made for their
subsistence； unincumbered by their predecessors； who； like them； were
but tenants for life。 You have successfully and completely
pulverized Mr。 Adams' system of orders； and his opening the mantle of
republicanism to every government of laws； whether consistent or not
with natural right。 Indeed； it must be acknowledged； that the term
_republic_ is of very vague application in every language。 Witness
the self…styled republics of Holland； Switzerland； Genoa； Venice；
Poland。 Were I to assign to this term a precise and definite idea； I
would say； purely and simply； it means a government by its citizens
in mass； acting directly and personally； according to rules
established by the majority； and that every other government is more
or less republican； in proportion as it has in its composition more
or less of this ingredient of the direct action of the citizens。
Such a government is evidently restrained to very narrow limits of
space and population。 I doubt if it would be practicable beyond the
extent of a New England township。 The first shade from this pure
element； which； like that of pure vital air； cannot sustain life of
itself； would be where the powers of the government； being divided；
should be exercised each by representatives chosen either _pro hac
vice_； or for such short terms as should render secure the duty of
expressing the will of their constituents。 This I should consider as
the nearest approach to a pure republic； which is practicable on a
large scale of country or population。 And we have examples of it in
some of our States constitutions； which； if not poisoned by
priest…craft； would prove its excellence over all mixtures with other
elements； and； with only equal doses of poison； would still be the
best。 Other shades of republicanism may be found in other forms of
government； where the executive； judiciary and legislative functions；
and the different branches of the latter； are chosen by the people
more or less directly； for longer terms of years or for life； or made
hereditary； or where there are mixtures of authorities； some
dependent on； and others independent of the people。 The further the
departure from direct and constant control by the citizens； the less
has the government of the ingredient of republicanism； evidently none
where the authorities are hereditary； as in France； Venice； &c。； or
self…chosen； as in Holland； and little； where for life； in proportion
as the life continues in being after the act of election。
The purest republican feature in the government of our own
State； is the House of Representatives。 The Senate is equally so the
first year； less the second； and so on。 The Executive still less；
because not chosen by the people directly。 The Judiciary seriously
anti…republican； because for life； and the national arm wielded； as
you observe； by military leaders irresponsible but to themselves。
Add to this the vicious constitution of our county courts （to whom
the justice； the executive administration； the taxation； police； the
military appointments of the county； and nearly all our daily
concerns are confided）； self…appointed； self…continued； holding their
authorities for life； and with an impossibility of breaking in on the
perpetual succession of any faction once possessed of the bench。
They are in truth； the executive； the judiciary； and the military of
their respective counties； and the sum of the counties makes the
State。 And add； also； that one half of our brethren who fight and
pay taxes； are excluded； like Helots； from the rights of
representation； as if society were instituted for the soil； and not
for the men inhabiting it； or one half of these could dispose of the
rights and the will of the other half； without their consent。
〃What constitutes a State？
Not high…raised battlements； or labor'd mound；
Thick wall； or moated gate；
Not cities proud； with spires and turrets crown'd；
No： men； high minded men；
Men； who their duties know；
But know their rights； and knowing； dare maintain。
These constitute a State。〃
In the General Government； the House of Representatives is
mainly republican； the Senate scarcely so at all； as not elected by
the people directly； and so long secured even against those who do
elect them； the Executive more republican than the Senate； from its
shorter term； its election by the people； in _practice_； （for they
vote for A only on an assurance that he will vote for B；） and
because； _in practice also_； a principle of rotation seems to be in a
course of establishment； the judiciary independent of the nation；
their coercion by impeachment being found nugatory。
If； then； the control of the people over the organs of their
government be the measure of its republicanism； and I confess I know
no other measure； it must be agreed that our governments have much
less of republicanism than ought to have been expected； in other
words； that the people have less regular control over their agents；
than their rights and their interests require。 And this I ascribe；
not to any want of republican dispositions in those who formed these
constitutions； but to a submission of true principle to European
authorities； to speculators on government； whose fears of the people
have been inspired by the populace of their own great cities； and
were unjustly entertained against the independent； the happy； and
therefore orderly citizens of the United States。 Much I apprehend
that the golden moment is past for reforming these heresies。 The
functionaries of public power rarely strengthen in their dispositions
to abridge it； and an unorganized call for timely amendment is not
likely to prevail against an organized opposition to it。 We are
always told that things are going on well； why change them？ _〃Chi
sta bene； non si muove；〃_ said the Italian； 〃let him who stands well；
stand still。〃 This is true； and I verily believe they would go on
well with us under an absolute monarch； while our present character
remains； of order； industry and love of peace； and restrained； as he
would be； by the proper spirit of the people。 But it is while it
remains such； we should provide against the consequences of its
deterioration。 And let us rest in the hope that it will yet be done；
and spare ourselves the pain of evils which may never happen。
On this view of the import of the term _republic_； instead of
saying； as has been said； 〃that it may mean anything or nothing；〃 we
may say with truth and meaning； that governments are more or less
republican as they have more or less of the element of popular
election and control in their composition； and believing； as I do；
that the mass of the citizens is the safest depository of their own
rights； and especially； that the evils flowing from the duperies of
the people； are less injurious than those from the egoism of their
agents； I am a friend to that composition of government which has in
it the most of this ingredient。 And I sincerely believe； with you；
that banking establishm