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that progress in industry to which her degree of culture entitles
her； cannot even maintain her previously acquired position； and is
made a convenience of （like a colony） by that very nation which
centuries ago was worked upon in like manner by the merchants of
Germany； until at last the German states have resolved to secure
their home markets for their own industry； by the adoption of a
united vigorous system of commercial policy。
The North American free states； who； more than any other nation
before them； are in a position to benefit by freedom of trade； and
influenced even from the very cradle of their independence by the
doctrines of the cosmopolitan school； are striving more than any
other nation to act on that principle。 But owing to wars with Great
Britain； we find that nation twice compelled to manufacture at home
the goods which it previously purchased under free trade from other
countries； and twice； after the conclusion of peace； brought to the
brink of ruin by free competition with foreigners； and thereby
admonished of the fact that under the present conditions of the
world every great nation must seek the guarantees of its continued
prosperity and independence； before all other things； in the
independent and uniform development of its own powers and
resources。
Thus history shows that restrictions are not so much the
inventions of mere speculative minds； as the natural consequences
of the diversity of interests； and of the strivings of nations
after independence or overpowering ascendency； and thus of national
emulation and wars； and therefore that they cannot be dispensed
with until this conflict of national interests shall cease； in
other words until all nations can be united under one and the same
system of law。 Thus the question as to whether； and how； the
various nations can be brought into one united federation； and how
the decisions of law can be invoked in the place of military force
to determine the differences which arise between independent
nations； has to be solved concurrently with the question how
universal free trade can be established in the place of separate
national commercial systems。
The attempts which have been made by single nations to
introduce freedom of trade in face of a nation which is predominant
in industry； wealth； and power； no less than distinguished for an
exclusive tariff system as Portugal did in 1703； France in 1786；
North America in 1786 and 1816； Russia from 1815 till 1821； and as
Germany has done for centuries go to show us that in this way
the prosperity of individual nations is sacrificed； without benefit
to mankind in general； solely for the enrichment of the predominant
manufacturing and commercial nation。 Switzerland （as we hope to
show in the sequel） constitutes an exception； which proves just as
much as it proves little for or against one or the other system。
Colbert appears to us not to have been the inventor of that
system which the Italians have named after him； for； as we have
seen； it was fully elaborated by the English long before his time。
Colbert only put in practice what France； if she wished to fulfil
her destinies； was bound to carry out sooner or later。 If Colbert
is to be blamed at all； it can only be charged against him that he
attempted to put into force under a despotic government a system
which could subsist only after a fundamental reform of the
political conditions。 But against this reproach to Colbert's memory
it may very well be argued that； had his system been continued by
wise princes and sagacious ministers； it would in all probability
have removed by means of reforms all those hindrances which stood
in the way of progress in manufactures； agriculture； and trade； as
well as of national freedom； and France would then have undergone
no revolution； but rather； impelled along the path of development
by the reciprocating influences of industry and freedom； she might
for the last century and a half have been successfully competing
with England in manufactures； in the promotion of her internal
trade； in foreign commerce； and in colonisation； as well as in her
fisheries； her navigation； and her naval power。
Finally； history teaches us how nations which have been endowed
by Nature with all resources which are requisite for the attainment
of the highest grade of wealth and power； may and must without
on that account forfeiting the end in view modify their systems
according to the measure of their own progress： in the first stage；
adopting free trade with more advanced nations as a means of
raising themselves from a state of barbarism； and of making
advances in agriculture； in the second stage； promoting the growth
of manufactures； fisheries； navigation； and foreign trade by means
of commercial restrictions； and in the last stage； after reaching
the highest degree of wealth and power； by gradually reverting to
the principle of free trade and of unrestricted competition in the
home as well as in foreign markets； that so their agriculturists；
manufacturers； and merchants may be preserved from indolence； and
stimulated to retain the supremacy which they have acquired。 In the
first stage； we see Spain； Portugal； and the Kingdom of Naples； in
the second； Germany and the United States of North America； France
apparently stands close upon the boundary line of the last stage；
but Great Britain alone at the present time has actually reached
it。
End