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etween¡¡an¡¡individual¡¡and¡¡the¡¡community¡£¡¡No¡¡society¡¡has¡¡ever¡¡admitted¡¡that¡¡it¡¡could¡¡not¡¡sacrifice¡¡individual¡¡welfare¡¡to¡¡its¡¡own¡¡existence¡£¡¡If¡¡conscripts¡¡are¡¡necessary¡¡for¡¡its¡¡army£»¡¡it¡¡seizes¡¡them£»¡¡and¡¡marches¡¡them£»¡¡with¡¡bayonets¡¡in¡¡their¡¡rear£»¡¡to¡¡death¡£¡¡It¡¡runs¡¡highways¡¡and¡¡railroads¡¡through¡¡old¡¡family¡¡places¡¡in¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡the¡¡owner's¡¡protest£»¡¡paying¡¡in¡¡this¡¡instance¡¡the¡¡market¡¡value£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡sure£»¡¡because¡¡no¡¡civilized¡¡government¡¡sacrifices¡¡the¡¡citizen¡¡more¡¡than¡¡it¡¡can¡¡help£»¡¡but¡¡still¡¡sacrificing¡¡his¡¡will¡¡and¡¡his¡¡welfare¡¡to¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡rest¡£¡¡/3/
If¡¡it¡¡were¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡trench¡¡further¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡field¡¡of¡¡morals£»¡¡it¡¡might¡¡be¡¡suggested¡¡that¡¡the¡¡dogma¡¡of¡¡equality¡¡applied¡¡even¡¡to¡¡individuals¡¡only¡¡within¡¡the¡¡limits¡¡of¡¡ordinary¡¡dealings¡¡in¡¡the¡¡common¡¡run¡¡of¡¡affairs¡£¡¡You¡¡cannot¡¡argue¡¡with¡¡your¡¡neighbor£»¡¡except¡¡on¡¡the¡¡admission¡¡for¡¡the¡¡£§44£§¡¡moment¡¡that¡¡he¡¡is¡¡as¡¡wise¡¡as¡¡you£»¡¡although¡¡you¡¡may¡¡by¡¡no¡¡means¡¡believe¡¡it¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡same¡¡way£»¡¡you¡¡cannot¡¡deal¡¡with¡¡him£»¡¡where¡¡both¡¡are¡¡free¡¡to¡¡choose£»¡¡except¡¡on¡¡the¡¡footing¡¡of¡¡equal¡¡treatment£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡same¡¡rules¡¡for¡¡both¡£¡¡The¡¡ever¡growing¡¡value¡¡set¡¡upon¡¡peace¡¡and¡¡the¡¡social¡¡relations¡¡tends¡¡to¡¡give¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡social¡¡being¡¡the¡¡appearance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡all¡¡being¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡me¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡the¡¡ultima¡¡ratio£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡regum£»¡¡but¡¡of¡¡private¡¡persons£»¡¡is¡¡force£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡at¡¡the¡¡bottom¡¡of¡¡all¡¡private¡¡relations£»¡¡however¡¡tempered¡¡by¡¡sympathy¡¡and¡¡all¡¡the¡¡social¡¡feelings£»¡¡is¡¡a¡¡justifiable¡¡self¡preference¡£¡¡If¡¡a¡¡man¡¡is¡¡on¡¡a¡¡plank¡¡in¡¡the¡¡deep¡¡sea¡¡which¡¡will¡¡only¡¡float¡¡one£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡stranger¡¡lays¡¡hold¡¡of¡¡it£»¡¡he¡¡will¡¡thrust¡¡him¡¡off¡¡if¡¡he¡¡can¡£¡¡When¡¡the¡¡state¡¡finds¡¡itself¡¡in¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡position£»¡¡it¡¡does¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡£
The¡¡considerations¡¡which¡¡answer¡¡the¡¡argument¡¡of¡¡equal¡¡rights¡¡also¡¡answer¡¡the¡¡objections¡¡to¡¡treating¡¡man¡¡as¡¡a¡¡thing£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡like¡£¡¡If¡¡a¡¡man¡¡lives¡¡in¡¡society£»¡¡he¡¡is¡¡liable¡¡to¡¡find¡¡himself¡¡so¡¡treated¡£¡¡The¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡civilization¡¡which¡¡a¡¡people¡¡has¡¡reached£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡is¡¡marked¡¡by¡¡their¡¡anxiety¡¡to¡¡do¡¡as¡¡they¡¡would¡¡be¡¡done¡¡by¡£¡¡It¡¡may¡¡be¡¡the¡¡destiny¡¡of¡¡man¡¡that¡¡the¡¡social¡¡instincts¡¡shall¡¡grow¡¡to¡¡control¡¡his¡¡actions¡¡absolutely£»¡¡even¡¡in¡¡anti¡social¡¡situations¡£¡¡But¡¡they¡¡have¡¡not¡¡yet¡¡done¡¡so£»¡¡and¡¡as¡¡the¡¡rules¡¡of¡¡law¡¡are¡¡or¡¡should¡¡be¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡morality¡¡which¡¡is¡¡generally¡¡accepted£»¡¡no¡¡rule¡¡founded¡¡on¡¡a¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡absolute¡¡unselfishness¡¡can¡¡be¡¡laid¡¡down¡¡without¡¡a¡¡breach¡¡between¡¡law¡¡and¡¡working¡¡beliefs¡£
If¡¡it¡¡be¡¡true£»¡¡as¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡presently¡¡try¡¡to¡¡show£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡general¡¡principles¡¡of¡¡criminal¡¡and¡¡civil¡¡liability¡¡are¡¡the¡¡same£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡follow¡¡from¡¡that¡¡alone¡¡that¡¡theory¡¡and¡¡fact¡¡agree¡¡in¡¡frequently¡¡punishing¡¡those¡¡who¡¡have¡¡been¡¡guilty¡¡£§45£§¡¡of¡¡no¡¡moral¡¡wrong£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡condemned¡¡by¡¡any¡¡standard¡¡that¡¡did¡¡not¡¡avowedly¡¡disregard¡¡the¡¡personal¡¡peculiarities¡¡of¡¡the¡¡individuals¡¡concerned¡£¡¡If¡¡punishment¡¡stood¡¡on¡¡the¡¡moral¡¡grounds¡¡which¡¡are¡¡proposed¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡the¡¡first¡¡thing¡¡to¡¡be¡¡considered¡¡would¡¡be¡¡those¡¡limitations¡¡in¡¡the¡¡capacity¡¡for¡¡choosing¡¡rightly¡¡which¡¡arise¡¡from¡¡abnormal¡¡instincts£»¡¡want¡¡of¡¡education£»¡¡lack¡¡of¡¡intelligence£»¡¡and¡¡all¡¡the¡¡other¡¡defects¡¡which¡¡are¡¡most¡¡marked¡¡in¡¡the¡¡criminal¡¡classes¡£¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡say¡¡that¡¡they¡¡should¡¡not¡¡be£»¡¡or¡¡at¡¡least¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡need¡¡to¡¡for¡¡my¡¡argument¡£¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡say¡¡that¡¡the¡¡criminal¡¡law¡¡does¡¡more¡¡good¡¡than¡¡harm¡£¡¡I¡¡only¡¡say¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡enacted¡¡or¡¡administered¡¡on¡¡that¡¡theory¡£
There¡¡remains¡¡to¡¡be¡¡mentioned¡¡the¡¡affirmative¡¡argument¡¡in¡¡favor¡¡of¡¡the¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡retribution£»¡¡to¡¡the¡¡effect¡¡that¡¡the¡¡fitness¡¡of¡¡punishment¡¡following¡¡wrong¡doing¡¡is¡¡axiomatic£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡instinctively¡¡recognized¡¡by¡¡unperverted¡¡minds¡£¡¡I¡¡think¡¡that¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡seen£»¡¡on¡¡self¡inspection£»¡¡that¡¡this¡¡feeling¡¡of¡¡fitness¡¡is¡¡absolute¡¡and¡¡unconditional¡¡only¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡our¡¡neighbors¡£¡¡It¡¡docs¡¡not¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡me¡¡that¡¡any¡¡one¡¡who¡¡has¡¡satisfied¡¡himself¡¡that¡¡an¡¡act¡¡of¡¡his¡¡was¡¡wrong£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡he¡¡will¡¡never¡¡do¡¡it¡¡again£»¡¡would¡¡feel¡¡the¡¡least¡¡need¡¡or¡¡propriety£»¡¡as¡¡between¡¡himself¡¡and¡¡an¡¡earthly¡¡punishing¡¡power¡¡alone£»¡¡of¡¡his¡¡being¡¡made¡¡to¡¡suffer¡¡for¡¡what¡¡he¡¡had¡¡done£»¡¡although£»¡¡when¡¡third¡¡persons¡¡were¡¡introduced£»¡¡he¡¡might£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡philosopher£»¡¡admit¡¡the¡¡necessity¡¡of¡¡hurting¡¡him¡¡to¡¡frighten¡¡others¡£¡¡But¡¡when¡¡our¡¡neighbors¡¡do¡¡wrong£»¡¡we¡¡sometimes¡¡feel¡¡the¡¡fitness¡¡of¡¡making¡¡them¡¡smart¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡whether¡¡they¡¡have¡¡repented¡¡or¡¡not¡£¡¡The¡¡feeling¡¡of¡¡fitness¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡me¡¡to¡¡be¡¡only¡¡vengeance¡¡in¡¡disguise£»¡¡and¡¡I¡¡have¡¡already¡¡admitted¡¡that¡¡vengeance¡¡was¡¡an¡¡element£»¡¡though¡¡not¡¡the¡¡chief¡¡element£»¡¡of¡¡punishment¡£
£§46£§¡¡But£»¡¡again£»¡¡the¡¡supposed¡¡intuition¡¡of¡¡fitness¡¡does¡¡not¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡me¡¡to¡¡be¡¡coextensive¡¡with¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡to¡¡be¡¡accounted¡¡for¡£¡¡The¡¡lesser¡¡punishments¡¡are¡¡just¡¡as¡¡fit¡¡for¡¡the¡¡lesser¡¡crimes¡¡as¡¡the¡¡greater¡¡for¡¡the¡¡greater¡£¡¡The¡¡demand¡¡that¡¡crime¡¡should¡¡be¡¡followed¡¡by¡¡its¡¡punishment¡¡should¡¡therefore¡¡be¡¡equal¡¡and¡¡absolute¡¡in¡¡both¡£¡¡Again£»¡¡a¡¡malum¡¡prohibitum¡¡is¡¡just¡¡as¡¡much¡¡a¡¡crime¡¡as¡¡a¡¡malum¡¡in¡¡se¡£¡¡If¡¡there¡¡is¡¡any¡¡general¡¡ground¡¡for¡¡punishment£»¡¡it¡¡must¡¡apply¡¡to¡¡one¡¡case¡¡as¡¡much¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡will¡¡hardly¡¡be¡¡said¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡wrong¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡just¡¡supposed¡¡consisted¡¡of¡¡a¡¡breach¡¡of¡¡the¡¡revenue¡¡laws£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡government¡¡had¡¡been¡¡indemnified¡¡for¡¡the¡¡loss£»¡¡we¡¡should¡¡feel¡¡any¡¡internal¡¡necessity¡¡that¡¡a¡¡man¡¡who¡¡had¡¡thoroughly¡¡repented¡¡of¡¡his¡¡wrong¡¡should¡¡be¡¡punished¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡except¡¡on¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡that¡¡his¡¡act¡¡was¡¡known¡¡to¡¡others¡£¡¡If¡¡it¡¡was¡¡known£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡would¡¡have¡¡to¡¡verify¡¡its¡¡threats¡¡in¡¡order¡¡that¡¡others¡¡might¡¡believe¡¡and¡¡tremble¡£¡¡But¡¡if¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡was¡¡a¡¡secret¡¡between¡¡the¡¡sovereign¡¡and¡¡the¡¡subject£»¡¡the¡¡sovereign£»¡¡if¡¡wholly¡¡free¡¡from¡¡passion£»¡¡would¡¡undoubtedly¡¡see¡¡that¡¡punishment¡¡in¡¡such¡¡a¡¡case¡¡was¡¡wholly¡¡without¡¡justification¡£
On¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand£»¡¡there¡¡can¡¡be¡¡no¡¡case¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡maker¡¡makes¡¡certain¡¡conduct¡¡criminal¡¡without¡¡his¡¡thereby¡¡showing¡¡a¡¡wish¡¡and¡¡purpose¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡that¡¡conduct¡£¡¡Prevention¡¡would¡¡accordingly¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡chief¡¡and¡¡only¡¡universal¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡punishment¡£¡¡The¡¡law¡¡threatens¡¡certain¡¡pains¡¡if¡¡you¡¡do¡¡certain¡¡things£»¡¡intending¡¡thereby¡¡to¡¡give¡¡you¡¡a¡¡new¡¡motive¡¡for¡¡not¡¡doing¡¡them¡£¡¡If¡¡you¡¡persist¡¡in¡¡doing¡¡them£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡to¡¡inflict¡¡the¡¡pains¡¡in¡¡order¡¡that¡¡its¡¡threats¡¡may¡¡continue¡¡to¡¡be¡¡believed¡£
If¡¡this¡¡is¡¡a¡¡true¡¡account¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡as¡¡it¡¡stands£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡does¡¡undoubtedly¡¡treat¡¡the¡¡individual¡¡as¡¡a¡¡means¡¡to¡¡an¡¡£§47£§¡¡end£»¡¡and¡¡uses¡¡him¡¡as¡¡a¡¡tool¡¡to¡¡increase¡¡the¡¡general¡¡welfare¡¡at¡¡his¡¡own¡¡expense¡£¡¡It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡suggested¡¡above£»¡¡that¡¡this¡¡course¡¡is¡¡perfectly¡¡proper£»¡¡but¡¡even¡¡if¡¡it¡¡is¡¡wrong£»¡¡our¡¡criminal¡¡law¡¡follows¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡our¡¡criminal¡¡law¡¡must¡¡be¡¡shaped¡¡accordingly¡£
Further¡¡evidence¡¡that¡¡our¡¡law¡¡exceeds¡¡the¡¡limits¡¡of¡¡retribution£»¡¡and¡¡subordinates¡¡consideration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡individual¡¡to¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡public¡¡well¡being£»¡¡will¡¡be¡¡found¡¡in¡¡some¡¡doctrines¡¡which¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡satisfactorily¡¡explained¡¡on¡¡any¡¡other¡¡ground¡£
The¡¡first¡¡of¡¡these¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡even¡¡the¡¡deliberate¡¡taking¡¡of¡¡life¡¡will¡¡not¡¡be¡¡punished¡¡when¡¡it¡¡is¡¡the¡¡only¡¡way¡¡of¡¡saving¡¡one's¡¡own¡£¡¡This¡¡principle¡¡is¡¡not¡¡so¡¡clearly¡¡established¡¡as¡¡that¡¡next¡¡to¡¡be¡¡mentioned£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡has¡¡the¡¡support¡¡of¡¡very¡¡great¡¡authority¡£¡¡/1/¡¡If¡¡that¡¡is¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡it¡¡must¡¡go¡¡on¡¡one¡¡of¡¡two¡¡grounds£»¡¡either¡¡that¡¡self¡preference¡¡is¡¡proper¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡supposed£»¡¡or¡¡that£»¡¡even¡¡if¡¡it¡¡is¡¡improper£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡cannot¡¡prevent¡¡it¡¡by¡¡punishment£»¡¡because¡¡a¡¡threat¡¡of¡¡death¡¡at¡¡some¡¡future¡¡time¡¡can¡¡never¡¡be¡¡a¡¡sufficiently¡¡powerful¡¡motive¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡man¡¡choose¡¡death¡¡now¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡avoid¡¡the¡¡threat¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡former¡¡ground¡¡is¡¡adopted£»¡¡it¡¡admits¡¡that¡¡a¡¡single¡¡person¡¡may¡¡sacrifice¡¡another¡¡to¡¡himself£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡fortiori¡¡that¡¡a¡¡people¡¡may¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡view¡¡is¡¡taken£»¡¡by¡¡abandoning¡¡punishment¡¡when¡¡it¡¡can¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡be¡¡expected¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡an¡¡act£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡abandons¡¡the¡¡retributive¡¡and¡¡adopts¡¡the¡¡preventive¡¡theory¡£
The¡¡next¡¡doctrine¡¡leads¡¡to¡¡still¡¡clearer¡¡conclusions¡£¡¡Ignorance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡is¡¡no¡¡excuse¡¡for¡¡breaking¡¡it¡£¡¡This¡¡substantive¡¡principle¡¡is¡¡sometimes¡¡put¡¡in¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡a¡¡rule¡¡of¡¡evidence£»¡¡that¡¡every¡¡one¡¡is¡¡presumed¡¡to¡¡know¡¡the¡¡£§48£§¡¡law¡£¡¡It¡¡has¡¡accordingly¡¡been¡¡defended¡¡by¡¡Austin¡¡and¡¡others£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡of¡¡difficulty¡¡of¡¡proof¡£¡¡If¡¡justice¡¡requires¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡to¡¡be¡¡ascertained£»¡¡the¡¡difficulty¡¡of¡¡doing¡¡so¡¡is¡¡no¡¡ground¡¡for¡¡refusing¡¡to¡¡try¡£¡¡But¡¡every¡¡one¡¡must¡¡feel¡¡that¡¡ignorance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡could¡¡never¡¡be¡¡admitted¡¡as¡¡an¡¡excuse£»¡¡even¡¡if¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡could¡¡be¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡sight¡¡and¡¡hearing¡¡in¡¡every¡¡case¡£¡¡Furthermore£»¡¡now¡¡that¡¡parties¡¡can¡¡testify£»¡¡it¡¡may¡¡be¡¡doubted¡¡whether¡¡a¡¡man's¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡is¡¡any¡¡harder¡¡to¡¡investigate¡¡than¡¡many¡¡questions¡¡which¡¡are¡¡gone¡¡into¡£¡¡The¡¡difficulty£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡it¡¡is£»¡¡would¡¡be¡¡met¡¡by¡¡throwing¡¡the¡¡burden¡¡of¡¡proving¡¡ignorance¡¡on¡¡the¡¡lawbreaker¡£
The¡¡principle¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡explained¡¡by¡¡saying¡¡that¡¡we¡¡are¡¡not¡¡only¡¡commanded¡¡to¡¡abstain¡¡from¡¡certain¡¡acts£»¡¡but¡¡also¡¡to¡¡find¡¡out¡¡that¡¡we¡¡are¡¡commanded¡£¡¡For¡¡if¡¡there¡¡were¡¡such¡¡a¡¡second¡¡command£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡very¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡the¡¡guilt¡¡of¡¡failing¡¡to¡¡obey¡¡it¡¡would¡¡bear¡¡no¡¡proportion¡¡to¡¡that¡¡of¡¡disobeying¡¡the¡¡principal¡¡command¡¡if¡¡known£»¡¡yet¡¡the¡¡failure¡¡to¡¡know¡¡would¡¡receive¡¡the¡¡same¡¡punishment¡¡as¡¡the¡¡failure¡¡to¡¡obey¡¡the¡¡principal¡¡law¡£
The¡¡true¡¡explanation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡rule¡¡is¡¡the¡¡same¡¡as¡¡that¡¡which¡¡accounts¡¡for¡¡the¡¡law's¡¡indifference¡¡to¡¡a¡¡man's¡¡particular¡¡temperament£»¡¡faculties£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡forth¡£¡¡Public¡¡policy¡¡sacrifices¡¡the¡¡individual¡¡to¡¡the¡¡general¡¡good¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡desirable¡¡that¡¡the¡¡burden¡¡of¡¡all¡¡should¡¡be¡¡equal£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡is¡¡still¡¡more¡¡desirable¡¡to¡¡put¡¡an¡¡end¡¡to¡¡robbery¡¡and¡¡murder¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡no¡¡doubt¡¡true¡¡that¡¡there¡¡are¡¡many¡¡cases¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡criminal¡¡could¡¡not¡¡have¡¡known¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡breaking¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡but¡¡to¡¡admit¡¡the¡¡excuse¡¡at¡¡all¡¡would¡¡