°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
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The¡¡cases¡¡in¡¡which¡¡this¡¡mode¡¡of¡¡trial¡¡was¡¡used¡¡appear¡¡from¡¡the¡¡early¡¡books¡¡and¡¡reports¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡almost¡¡wholly¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡claims¡¡arising¡¡out¡¡of¡¡a¡¡sale¡¡or¡¡loan¡£¡¡And¡¡the¡¡question¡¡at¡¡once¡¡occurs£»¡¡whether¡¡we¡¡are¡¡not¡¡upon¡¡traces¡¡of¡¡an¡¡institution¡¡which¡¡was¡¡already¡¡ancient¡¡when¡¡Glanvill¡¡wrote¡£¡¡For¡¡centuries¡¡before¡¡the¡¡Conquest¡¡Anglo¡Saxon¡¡law¡¡/1/¡¡had¡¡required¡¡the¡¡election¡¡of¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡£§256£§¡¡number¡¡of¡¡official¡¡witnesses£»¡¡two¡¡or¡¡three¡¡of¡¡whom¡¡were¡¡to¡¡be¡¡called¡¡in¡¡to¡¡every¡¡bargain¡¡of¡¡sale¡£¡¡The¡¡object¡¡for¡¡which¡¡these¡¡witnesses¡¡were¡¡established¡¡is¡¡not¡¡commonly¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡the¡¡proof¡¡of¡¡debts¡£¡¡They¡¡go¡¡back¡¡to¡¡a¡¡time¡¡when¡¡theft¡¡and¡¡similar¡¡offences¡¡were¡¡the¡¡chief¡¡ground¡¡of¡¡litigation£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡for¡¡which¡¡they¡¡were¡¡appointed¡¡was¡¡to¡¡afford¡¡a¡¡means¡¡of¡¡deciding¡¡whether¡¡a¡¡person¡¡charged¡¡with¡¡having¡¡stolen¡¡property¡¡had¡¡come¡¡by¡¡it¡¡rightfully¡¡or¡¡not¡£¡¡A¡¡defendant¡¡could¡¡clear¡¡himself¡¡of¡¡the¡¡felony¡¡by¡¡their¡¡oath¡¡that¡¡he¡¡had¡¡bought¡¡or¡¡received¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡openly¡¡in¡¡the¡¡way¡¡appointed¡¡by¡¡law¡£
Having¡¡been¡¡present¡¡at¡¡the¡¡bargain£»¡¡the¡¡witnesses¡¡were¡¡able¡¡to¡¡swear¡¡to¡¡what¡¡they¡¡had¡¡seen¡¡and¡¡heard£»¡¡if¡¡any¡¡question¡¡arose¡¡between¡¡the¡¡parties¡£¡¡Accordingly£»¡¡their¡¡use¡¡was¡¡not¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡disposing¡¡of¡¡a¡¡charge¡¡of¡¡felony¡£¡¡But¡¡that¡¡particular¡¡service¡¡identifies¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Saxon¡¡period¡£¡¡Now¡¡we¡¡know¡¡that¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡these¡¡witnesses¡¡did¡¡not¡¡at¡¡once¡¡disappear¡¡under¡¡Norman¡¡influence¡£¡¡They¡¡are¡¡found¡¡with¡¡their¡¡old¡¡function¡¡in¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡William¡¡the¡¡Conqueror¡£¡¡/1/¡¡The¡¡language¡¡of¡¡Glanvill¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡prove¡¡that¡¡they¡¡were¡¡still¡¡known¡¡under¡¡Henry¡¡II¡£¡¡He¡¡says¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡a¡¡purchaser¡¡cannot¡¡summon¡¡in¡¡the¡¡man¡¡from¡¡whom¡¡he¡¡bought£»¡¡to¡¡warrant¡¡the¡¡property¡¡to¡¡him¡¡and¡¡defend¡¡the¡¡suit£»¡¡£¨for¡¡if¡¡he¡¡does£»¡¡the¡¡peril¡¡is¡¡shifted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡seller£»£©¡¡then¡¡if¡¡the¡¡purchaser¡¡has¡¡sufficient¡¡proof¡¡of¡¡his¡¡having¡¡lawfully¡¡bought¡¡the¡¡thing£»¡¡de¡¡legittimo¡¡marcatu¡¡suo£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡clear¡¡him¡¡of¡¡felony¡£¡¡But¡¡if¡¡he¡¡have¡¡not¡¡sufficient¡¡suit£»¡¡he¡¡will¡¡be¡¡in¡¡danger¡£¡¡/2/¡¡This¡¡is¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡William¡¡over¡¡again¡£¡¡It¡¡follows¡¡that¡¡purchasers¡¡still¡¡used¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses¡£
But¡¡Glanvill¡¡also¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡admit¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡witness¡¡to¡¡establish¡¡debts¡£¡¡/1/¡¡As¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses¡¡were¡¡formerly¡¡available¡¡for¡¡this¡¡purpose£»¡¡I¡¡see¡¡no¡¡reason¡¡to¡¡doubt¡¡that¡¡they¡¡still¡¡were£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡he¡¡is¡¡speaking¡¡of¡¡them¡¡here¡¡also¡£¡¡/2/¡¡Moreover£»¡¡for¡¡a¡¡long¡¡time¡¡after¡¡Henry¡¡II¡££»¡¡whenever¡¡an¡¡action¡¡was¡¡brought¡¡for¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡of¡¡which¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡written¡¡evidence£»¡¡the¡¡plaintiff£»¡¡when¡¡asked¡¡what¡¡he¡¡had¡¡to¡¡show¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡always¡¡answered¡¡¡¨good¡¡suit£»¡¨¡¡and¡¡tendered¡¡his¡¡witnesses£»¡¡who¡¡were¡¡sometimes¡¡examined¡¡by¡¡the¡¡court¡£¡¡/3/¡¡I¡¡think¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡straining¡¡the¡¡evidence¡¡to¡¡infer¡¡that¡¡the¡¡¡¨good¡¡suit¡¨¡¡of¡¡the¡¡later¡¡reports¡¡was¡¡the¡¡descendant¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Saxon¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses£»¡¡as¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡shown¡¡that¡¡Glanvill's¡¡secta¡¡was¡£¡¡/4/
Assuming¡¡this¡¡step¡¡in¡¡the¡¡argument¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡taken£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡well¡¡to¡¡recall¡¡again¡¡for¡¡a¡¡moment¡¡the¡¡original¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡witness¡¡oath¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡facts¡¡within¡¡the¡¡witnesses'¡¡knowledge¡¡by¡¡sight¡¡and¡¡hearing¡£¡¡But¡¡as¡¡the¡¡purposes¡¡for¡¡which¡¡witnesses¡¡were¡¡provided¡¡only¡¡required¡¡their¡¡presence¡¡when¡¡property¡¡changed¡¡hands£»¡¡the¡¡principal¡¡case¡¡in¡¡which¡¡they¡¡could¡¡be¡¡of¡¡service¡¡between¡¡the¡¡parties¡¡£§258£§¡¡to¡¡a¡¡bargain¡¡was¡¡when¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡was¡¡claimed¡¡by¡¡reason¡¡of¡¡the¡¡delivery¡¡of¡¡property¡£¡¡The¡¡purpose¡¡did¡¡not¡¡extend¡¡to¡¡agreements¡¡which¡¡were¡¡executory¡¡on¡¡both¡¡sides£»¡¡because¡¡there¡¡no¡¡question¡¡of¡¡theft¡¡could¡¡arise¡£¡¡And¡¡Glanvill¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡in¡¡his¡¡time¡¡the¡¡King's¡¡Court¡¡did¡¡not¡¡enforce¡¡such¡¡agreements¡£¡¡/1/¡¡Now£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡oath¡¡of¡¡the¡¡secta¡¡could¡¡only¡¡be¡¡used¡¡to¡¡establish¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡where¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses¡¡could¡¡have¡¡sworn£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡seen£»¡¡readily¡¡enough£»¡¡how¡¡an¡¡accident¡¡of¡¡procedure¡¡may¡¡have¡¡led¡¡to¡¡a¡¡most¡¡important¡¡rule¡¡of¡¡substantive¡¡law¡£
The¡¡rule¡¡that¡¡witnesses¡¡could¡¡only¡¡swear¡¡to¡¡facts¡¡within¡¡their¡¡knowledge£»¡¡coupled¡¡with¡¡the¡¡accident¡¡that¡¡these¡¡witnesses¡¡were¡¡not¡¡used¡¡in¡¡transactions¡¡which¡¡might¡¡create¡¡a¡¡debt£»¡¡except¡¡for¡¡a¡¡particular¡¡fact£»¡¡namely£»¡¡the¡¡delivery¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡together¡¡with¡¡the¡¡further¡¡accident¡¡that¡¡this¡¡delivery¡¡was¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo£»¡¡was¡¡equivalent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡rule¡¡that£»¡¡when¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡was¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡witnesses¡¡there¡¡must¡¡be¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo¡£¡¡But¡¡these¡¡debts¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡witnesses£»¡¡instead¡¡of¡¡by¡¡deed¡¡are¡¡what¡¡we¡¡call¡¡simple¡¡contract¡¡debts£»¡¡and¡¡thus¡¡beginning¡¡with¡¡debt£»¡¡and¡¡subsequently¡¡extending¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡other¡¡contracts£»¡¡is¡¡established¡¡our¡¡peculiar¡¡and¡¡most¡¡important¡¡doctrine¡¡that¡¡every¡¡simple¡¡contract¡¡must¡¡have¡¡a¡¡consideration¡£¡¡This¡¡was¡¡never¡¡the¡¡law¡¡as¡¡to¡¡debts¡¡or¡¡contracts¡¡proved¡¡in¡¡the¡¡usual¡¡way¡¡by¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡seal£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡it¡¡applied¡¡only¡¡to¡¡obligations¡¡which¡¡were¡¡formerly¡¡established¡¡by¡¡a¡¡procedure¡¡of¡¡limited¡¡use£»¡¡£§259£§¡¡goes¡¡far¡¡to¡¡show¡¡that¡¡the¡¡connection¡¡with¡¡procedure¡¡was¡¡not¡¡accidental¡£
The¡¡mode¡¡of¡¡proof¡¡soon¡¡changed£»¡¡but¡¡as¡¡late¡¡as¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Queen¡¡Elizabeth¡¡we¡¡find¡¡a¡¡trace¡¡of¡¡this¡¡original¡¡connection¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡said£»¡¡¡¨But¡¡the¡¡common¡¡law¡¡requires¡¡that¡¡there¡¡should¡¡be¡¡a¡¡new¡¡cause¡¡£¨i¡£¡¡e¡£¡¡consideration£©£»¡¡whereof¡¡the¡¡country¡¡may¡¡have¡¡intelligence¡¡or¡¡knowledge¡¡for¡¡the¡¡trial¡¡of¡¡it£»¡¡if¡¡need¡¡be£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡necessary¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Public¡weal¡£¡¨¡¡/1/¡¡Lord¡¡Mansfield¡¡showed¡¡his¡¡intuition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡historical¡¡grounds¡¡of¡¡our¡¡law¡¡when¡¡he¡¡said£»¡¡¡¨I¡¡take¡¡it¡¡that¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡notion¡¡about¡¡the¡¡want¡¡of¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡for¡¡the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡evidence¡¡only£»¡¡for¡¡when¡¡it¡¡is¡¡reduced¡¡into¡¡writing£»¡¡as¡¡in¡¡covenants£»¡¡specialties£»¡¡bonds£»¡¡etc¡££»¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡objection¡¡to¡¡the¡¡want¡¡of¡¡consideration¡£¡¨¡¡/2/
If¡¡it¡¡should¡¡be¡¡objected¡¡that¡¡the¡¡preceding¡¡argument¡¡is¡¡necessarily¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡debt£»¡¡whereas¡¡the¡¡requirement¡¡of¡¡consideration¡¡applies¡¡equally¡¡to¡¡all¡¡simple¡¡contracts£»¡¡the¡¡answer¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡in¡¡all¡¡probability¡¡the¡¡rule¡¡originated¡¡with¡¡debt£»¡¡and¡¡spread¡¡from¡¡debt¡¡to¡¡other¡¡contracts¡£
But£»¡¡again£»¡¡it¡¡may¡¡be¡¡asked¡¡whether¡¡there¡¡were¡¡no¡¡other¡¡contracts¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡witness¡¡except¡¡those¡¡which¡¡have¡¡been¡¡mentioned¡£¡¡Were¡¡there¡¡no¡¡contracts¡¡proved¡¡in¡¡that¡¡way¡¡to¡¡which¡¡the¡¡accidental¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡wanting£¿¡¡To¡¡this¡¡also¡¡there¡¡is¡¡an¡¡easy¡¡answer¡£¡¡The¡¡contracts¡¡enforced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡civil¡¡courts£»¡¡even¡¡as¡¡late¡¡as¡¡Henry¡¡II¡££»¡¡were¡¡few¡¡and¡¡simple¡£¡¡The¡¡witness¡¡procedure¡¡was¡¡no¡¡doubt¡¡broad¡¡enough¡¡for¡¡all¡¡the¡¡contracts¡¡which¡¡were¡¡made¡¡in¡¡early¡¡times¡£¡¡Besides¡¡those¡¡of¡¡sale£»¡¡loan£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡like£»¡¡which¡¡have¡¡been¡¡mentioned£»¡¡I¡¡find¡¡but¡¡two¡¡contractual¡¡£§260£§¡¡obligations¡£¡¡These¡¡were¡¡the¡¡warranties¡¡accompanying¡¡a¡¡sale¡¡and¡¡suretyship¡¡which¡¡was¡¡referred¡¡to¡¡at¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Lecture¡£¡¡Of¡¡the¡¡former£»¡¡warranty¡¡of¡¡title¡¡was¡¡rather¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡an¡¡obligation¡¡raised¡¡by¡¡the¡¡law¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡relation¡¡of¡¡buyer¡¡and¡¡seller¡¡than¡¡as¡¡a¡¡contract¡£¡¡Other¡¡express¡¡warranties¡¡were¡¡matters¡¡within¡¡the¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses£»¡¡and¡¡were¡¡sworn¡¡to¡¡by¡¡them¡¡in¡¡Saxon¡¡times¡£¡¡/1/
But¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Norman¡¡period¡¡warranty¡¡is¡¡very¡¡little¡¡heard¡¡of£»¡¡except¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡land£»¡¡and¡¡then¡¡it¡¡was¡¡decided¡¡by¡¡the¡¡duel¡£¡¡It¡¡so¡¡wholly¡¡disappeared£»¡¡except¡¡where¡¡it¡¡was¡¡embodied¡¡in¡¡a¡¡deed£»¡¡that¡¡it¡¡can¡¡have¡¡had¡¡no¡¡influence¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡consideration¡£¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡therefore¡¡assume£»¡¡without¡¡more¡¡detail£»¡¡that¡¡it¡¡does¡¡not¡¡bear¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡case¡£
Then¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡pledge¡¡or¡¡surety¡£¡¡He¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡paid¡¡with¡¡his¡¡body£»¡¡unless¡¡in¡¡very¡¡exceptional¡¡cases£»¡¡but¡¡his¡¡liability¡¡was¡¡translated¡¡into¡¡money£»¡¡and¡¡enforced¡¡in¡¡an¡¡action¡¡of¡¡debt¡£¡¡This¡¡time¡honored¡¡contract£»¡¡like¡¡the¡¡other¡¡debts¡¡of¡¡Glanvill's¡¡time£»¡¡could¡¡be¡¡established¡¡by¡¡witness¡¡without¡¡a¡¡writing£»¡¡/2/¡¡and¡¡in¡¡this¡¡case¡¡there¡¡was¡¡not¡¡such¡¡a¡¡consideration£»¡¡such¡¡a¡¡benefit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡promisor£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡law¡¡required¡¡when¡¡the¡¡doctrine¡¡was¡¡first¡¡enunciated¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡also¡¡is¡¡unimportant£»¡¡because¡¡his¡¡liability¡¡on¡¡the¡¡oath¡¡of¡¡witness¡¡came¡¡to¡¡an¡¡end£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡warrantor£»¡¡before¡¡the¡¡foundations¡¡were¡¡laid¡¡for¡¡the¡¡rule¡¡which¡¡I¡¡am¡¡seeking¡¡to¡¡explain¡£¡¡A¡¡writing¡¡soon¡¡came¡¡to¡¡be¡¡required£»¡¡as¡¡will¡¡be¡¡seen¡¡in¡¡a¡¡moment¡£
The¡¡result¡¡so¡¡far¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡only¡¡action¡¡of¡¡contract¡¡in¡¡Glanvill's¡¡time¡¡was¡¡debt£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡only¡¡debts¡¡recovered¡¡£§261£§¡¡without¡¡writing¡¡were¡¡those¡¡which¡¡have¡¡been¡¡described£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡only¡¡one¡¡of¡¡these¡¡for¡¡which¡¡there¡¡was¡¡not¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡be¡¡recoverable¡¡in¡¡that¡¡way¡¡by¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Edward¡¡III¡£
But¡¡great¡¡changes¡¡were¡¡beginning¡¡in¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Henry¡¡II¡£¡¡More¡¡various¡¡and¡¡complex¡¡contracts¡¡soon¡¡came¡¡to¡¡be¡¡enforced¡£¡¡It¡¡may¡¡be¡¡asked£»¡¡Why¡¡was¡¡not¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡of¡¡the¡¡witness¡¡oath¡¡enlarged£»¡¡or£»¡¡if¡¡any¡¡better¡¡proof¡¡were¡¡forthcoming£»¡¡why¡¡was¡¡not¡¡the¡¡secta¡¡done¡¡away¡¡with£»¡¡and¡¡other¡¡oral¡¡testimony¡¡admitted£¿¡¡In¡¡any¡¡event£»¡¡what¡¡can¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡Henry¡¡II¡£'s¡¡time¡¡have¡¡to¡¡do¡¡with¡¡consideration£»¡¡which¡¡not¡¡heard¡¡of¡¡until¡¡centuries¡¡later£¿
It¡¡is¡¡manifest¡¡that¡¡a¡¡witness¡¡oath£»¡¡which¡¡disposes¡¡of¡¡a¡¡case¡¡by¡¡the¡¡simple¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡sworn£»¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡satisfactory¡¡mode¡¡of¡¡proof¡£¡¡A¡¡written¡¡admission¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡produced¡¡in¡¡court£»¡¡and¡¡sufficiently¡¡identified¡¡as¡¡issuing¡¡from¡¡the¡¡defendant£»¡¡is¡¡obviously¡¡much¡¡better¡£¡¡The¡¡only¡¡weak¡¡point¡¡about¡¡a¡¡writing¡¡is¡¡the¡¡means¡¡of¡¡identifying¡¡it¡¡as¡¡the¡¡defendant's£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡difficulty¡¡disappeared¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡seals¡¡became¡¡common¡£¡¡This¡¡had¡¡more¡¡or¡¡less¡¡taken¡¡place¡¡in¡¡Glanvill's¡¡time£»¡¡and¡¡then¡¡all¡¡that¡¡a¡¡party¡¡had¡¡to¡¡do¡¡was¡¡to¡¡produce¡¡the¡¡writing¡¡and¡¡satisfy¡¡the¡¡court¡¡by¡¡inspection¡¡that¡¡the¡¡impression¡¡on¡¡the¡¡wax¡¡fitted¡¡his¡¡opponent's¡¡seal¡£¡¡/1/¡¡The¡¡oath¡¡of¡¡the¡¡secta¡¡could¡¡always¡¡be¡¡successfully¡¡met¡¡by¡¡wager¡¡of¡¡law£»¡¡/2/¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡by¡¡a¡¡counter¡¡oath¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡defendant£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡same¡¡or¡¡double¡¡the¡¡number¡¡of¡¡fellow¡swearers¡¡produ