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The Ethics ＇Part II＇
（Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata）
by Benedict de Spinoza
Translated by R。 H。 M。 Elwes
Part II： ON THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE MIND
PREFACE I now pass on to explaining the results； which must
necessarily follow from the essence of God； or of the eternal
and infinite being； not； indeed； all of them （for we proved in
Part i。； Prop。 xvi。； that an infinite number must follow in an
infinite number of ways）； but only those which are able to lead
us； as it were by the hand； to the knowledge of the human mind
and its highest blessedness。
DEFINITIONS I。 By 'body' I mean a mode which expresses in a
certain determinate manner the essence of God； in so far as he
is considered as an extended thing。 （See Pt。 i。； Prop。 xxv。
Cor。）
II。 I consider as belonging to the essence of a thing that；
which being given； the thing is necessarily given also； and；
which being removed； the thing is necessarily removed also； in
other words； that without which the thing； and which itself
without the thing； can neither be nor be conceived。
III。 By 'idea；' I mean the mental conception which is formed by
the mind as a thinking thing。
》》》》》ExplanationI say 'conception' rather than perception；
because the word perception seems to imply that the mind is
passive in respect to the object； whereas conception seems to
express an activity of the mind。
IV。 By 'an adequate idea；' I mean an idea which； in so far as
it is considered in itself； without relation to the object； has
all the properties or intrinsic marks of a true idea。
》》》》》ExplanationI say 'intrinsic；' in order to exclude that
mark which is extrinsic； namely； the agreement between the idea
and its object （ideatum）。
V。 'Duration' is the indefinite continuance of existing。
》》》》》ExplanationI say 'indefinite；' because it cannot be
determined through the existence itself of the existing thing；
or by its efficient cause； which necessarily gives the existence
of the thing； but does not take it away。
VI。 'Reality' and 'perfection' I use as synonymous terms。
VII。 By 'particular things；' I mean things which are finite and
have a conditioned existence； but if several individual things
concur in one action； so as to be all simultaneously the effect
of one cause； I consider them all； so far； as one particular
thing。
AXIOMS I。 The essence of man does not involve necessary
existence； that is； it may； in the order of nature； come to pass
that this or that man does or does not exist。
II。 Man thinks。
III。 Modes of thinking； such as love； desire； or any other of
the passions； do not take place； unless there be in the same
individual an idea of the thing loved； desired； &c。 But the idea
can exist without the presence of any other mode of thinking。
IV。 We perceive that a certain body is affected in many ways。
V。 We feel and perceive no particular things； save bodies and
modes of thought。
N。B。 The Postulates are given after the conclusion of Prop。
xiii。
PROPOSITIONS I。 Thought is an attribute of God； or God is a
thinking thing。
》》》》》ProofParticular thoughts； or this and that thought； are
modes which； in a certain conditioned manner； express the nature
of God （Pt。 i。； Prop。 xxv。； Cor。）。 God therefore possesses the
attribute （Pt。 i。； Def。 v。） of which the concept is involved in
all particular thoughts； which latter are conceived thereby。
Thought； therefore； is one of the infinite attributes of God；
which express God's eternal and infinite essence （Pt。 i。； Def。
vi。）。 In other words； God is a thinking thing。 Q。E。D。
*****NoteThis proposition is also evident from the fact； that
we are able to conceive an infinite thinking being。 For； in
proportion as a thinking being is conceived as thinking more
thoughts； so is it conceived as containing more reality or
perfection。 Therefore a being； which can think an infinite
number of things in an infinite number of ways； is；
necessarily； in respect of thinking； infinite。 As； therefore；
from the consideration of thought alone； we conceive an infinite
being； thought is necessarily （Pt。 i。； Deff。 iv。 and vi。） one of
the infinite attributes of God； as we were desirous of showing。
II。 Extension is an attribute of God； or God is an extended
thing。
》》》》》ProofThe proof of this proposition is similar to that of
the last。
III。 In God there is necessarily the idea not only of his
essence； but also of all things which necessarily follow from
his essence。
》》》》》ProofGod （by the first Prop。 of this Part） can think an
infinite number of things in infinite ways； or （what is the same
thing； by Prop。 xvi。； Part i。） can form the idea of his essence；
and of all things which necessarily follow therefrom。 Now all
that is in the power of God necessarily is （Pt。 i。； Prop。
xxxv。）。 Therefore； such an idea as we are considering
necessarily is； and in God alone。 Q。E。D。 （Part i。； Prop。 xv。）
*****NoteThe multitude understand by the power of God the free
will of God； and the right over all things that exist； which
latter are accordingly generally considered as contingent。 For
it is said that God has the power to destroy all things； and to
reduce them to nothing。 Further； the power of God is very often
likened to the power of kings。 But this doctrine we have
refuted （Pt。 i。； Prop。 xxxii。； Cors。 i。 and ii。）； and we have
shown （Part i。； Prop。 xvi。） that God acts by the same necessity；
as that by which he understands himself； in other words； as it
follows from the necessity of the divine nature （as all admit）；
that God understands himself； so also does it follow by the same
necessity； that God performs infinite acts in infinite ways。 We
further showed （Part i。； Prop。 xxxiv。）； that God's power is
identical with God's essence in action； therefore it is as
impossible for us to conceive God as not acting； as to conceive
him as non…existent。 If we might pursue the subject further； I
could point out； that the power which is commonly attributed to
God is not only human （as showing that God is conceived by the
multitude as a man； or in the likeness of a man）； but involves a
negation of power。 However； I am unwilling to go over the same
ground so often。 I would only beg the reader again and again； to
turn over frequently in his mind what I have said in Part i。
from Prop。 xvi。 to the end。 No one will be able to follow my
meaning； unless he is scrupulously careful not to confound the
power of God with the human power and right of kings。
IV。 The idea of God； from which an infinite number of things
follow in infinite ways； can only be one。
》》》》》ProofInfinite intellect comprehends nothing save the
attributes of God and his modifications （Part i。； Prop。 xxx。）。
Now God is one （Part i。； Prop。 xiv。； Cor。）。 Therefore the idea
of God； wherefrom an infinite number of things follow in infinite
ways； can only be one。 Q。E。D。
V。 The actual being of ideas owns God as its cause； only in so
far as he is considered as a thinking thing； not in so far as he
is unfolded in any other attribute； that is； the ideas both of
the attributes of God and of particular things do not own as
their efficient cause their objects （ideata） or the things
perceived； but God himself in so far as he is a thinking thing。
》》》》》ProofThis proposition is evident from Prop。 iii。 of this
Part。 We there drew the conclusion； that God can form the idea
of his essence； and of all things which follow necessarily
therefrom； solely because he is a thinking thing； and not because
he is the object of his own idea。 Wherefore the actual being of
ideas owns for cause God； in so far as he is a thinking thing。
It may be differently proved as follows： the actual being of
ideas is （obviously） a mode of thought； that is （Part i。； Prop。
xxv。； Cor。） a mode which expresses in a certain manner the
nature of God； in so far as he is a thinking thing； and therefore
（Part i。； Prop。 x。） involves the conception of no other attribute
of God； and consequently （by Part i。； Ax。 iv。） is not the effect
o