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impossible）； it could not apply to phenomena； which do not represent
things in themselves。 In such a case I should be obliged in
transcendental reflection to compare my conceptions only under the
conditions of sensibility； and so space and time would not be
determinations of things in themselves； but of phenomena。 What
things may be in themselves； I know not and need not know； because a
thing is never presented to me otherwise than as a phenomenon。
I must adopt the same mode of procedure with the other conceptions
of reflection。 Matter is substantia phaenomenon。 That in it which is
internal I seek to discover in all parts of space which it occupies；
and in all the functions and operations it performs； and which are
indeed never anything but phenomena of the external sense。 I cannot
therefore find anything that is absolutely； but only what is
comparatively internal； and which itself consists of external
relations。 The absolutely internal in matter； and as it should be
according to the pure understanding； is a mere chimera； for matter
is not an object for the pure understanding。 But the transcendental
object； which is the foundation of the phenomenon which we call
matter； is a mere nescio quid； the nature of which we could not
understand； even though someone were found able to tell us。 For we can
understand nothing that does not bring with it something in
intuition corresponding to the expressions employed。 If； by the
complaint of being unable to perceive the internal nature of things；
it is meant that we do not comprehend by the pure understanding what
the things which appear to us may be in themselves； it is a silly
and unreasonable complaint； for those who talk thus really desire that
we should be able to cognize； consequently to intuite； things
without senses； and therefore wish that we possessed a faculty of
cognition perfectly different from the human faculty； not merely in
degree； but even as regards intuition and the mode thereof； so that
thus we should not be men； but belong to a class of beings； the
possibility of whose existence； much less their nature and
constitution； we have no means of cognizing。 By observation and
analysis of phenomena we penetrate into the interior of nature； and no
one can say what progress this knowledge may make in time。 But those
transcendental questions which pass beyond the limits of nature； we
could never answer； even although all nature were laid open to us；
because we have not the power of observing our own mind with any other
intuition than that of our internal sense。 For herein lies the mystery
of the origin and source of our faculty of sensibility。 Its
application to an object； and the transcendental ground of this
unity of subjective and objective； lie too deeply concealed for us；
who cognize ourselves only through the internal sense； consequently as
phenomena； to be able to discover in our existence anything but
phenomena； the non…sensuous cause of which we at the same time
earnestly desire to penetrate to。
The great utility of this critique of conclusions arrived at by
the processes of mere reflection consists in its clear demonstration
of the nullity of all conclusions respecting objects which are
compared with each other in the understanding alone； while it at the
same time confirms what we particularly insisted on； namely； that；
although phenomena are not included as things in themselves among
the objects of the pure understanding； they are nevertheless the
only things by which our cognition can possess objective reality； that
is to say； which give us intuitions to correspond with our
conceptions。
When we reflect in a purely logical manner； we do nothing more
than compare conceptions in our understanding； to discover whether
both have the same content； whether they are self…contradictory or
not； whether anything is contained in either conception； which of
the two is given； and which is merely a mode of thinking that given。
But if I apply these conceptions to an object in general （in the
transcendental sense）； without first determining whether it is an
object of sensuous or intellectual intuition； certain limitations
present themselves； which forbid us to pass beyond the conceptions and
render all empirical use of them impossible。 And thus these
limitations prove that the representation of an object as a thing in
general is not only insufficient； but； without sensuous
determination and independently of empirical conditions；
self…contradictory； that we must therefore make abstraction of all
objects； as in logic； or； admitting them； must think them under
conditions of sensuous intuition； that； consequently； the intelligible
requires an altogether peculiar intuition； which we do not possess；
and in the absence of which it is for us nothing； while； on the
other hand phenomena cannot be objects in themselves。 For； when I
merely think things in general； the difference in their external
relations cannot constitute a difference in the things themselves；
on the contrary； the former presupposes the latter； and if the
conception of one of two things is not internally different from
that of the other； I am merely thinking the same thing in different
relations。 Further； by the addition of one affirmation （reality） to
the other； the positive therein is really augmented； and nothing is
abstracted or withdrawn from it； hence the real in things cannot be in
contradiction with or opposition to itself… and so on。
The true use of the conceptions of reflection in the employment of
the understanding has； as we have shown； been so misconceived by
Leibnitz； one of the most acute philosophers of either ancient or
modern times； that he has been misled into the construction of a
baseless system of intellectual cognition； which professes to
determine its objects without the intervention of the senses。 For this
reason； the exposition of the cause of the amphiboly of these
conceptions； as the origin of these false principles； is of great
utility in determining with certainty the proper limits of the
understanding。
It is right to say whatever is affirmed or denied of the whole of
a conception can be affirmed or denied of any part of it （dictum de
omni et nullo）； but it would be absurd so to alter this logical
proposition as to say whatever is not contained in a general
conception is likewise not contained in the particular conceptions
which rank under it； for the latter are particular conceptions； for
the very reason that their content is greater than that which is
cogitated in the general conception。 And yet the whole intellectual
system of Leibnitz is based upon this false principle； and with it
must necessarily fall to the ground； together with all the ambiguous
principles in reference to the employment of the understanding which
have thence originated。
Leibnitz's principle of the identity of indiscernibles or
indistinguishables is really based on the presupposition that； if in
the conception of a thing a certain distinction is not to be found； it
is also not to be met with in things themselves； that； consequently；
all things are completely identical （numero eadem） which are not
distinguishable from each other （as to quality or quantity） in our
conceptions of them。 But； as in the mere conception of anything
abstraction has been made of many necessary conditions of intuition；
that of which abstraction has been made is rashly held to be
non…existent； and nothing is attributed to the thing but what is
contained in its conception。
The conception of a cubic foot of space； however I may think it；
is in itself completely identical。 But two cubic feet in space are
nevertheless distinct from each other from the sole fact of their
being in different places （they are numero diversa）； and these
places are conditions of intuition； wherein the object of this
conception is given； and which do not belong to the conception； but to
the faculty of sensibility。 In like manner； there is in the conception
of a thing no contradiction when a negative is not connected with an
affirmative； and merely affirmative conceptions cannot； in
conjunction； produce any negation。 But in sensuous intuition；
wherein reality （take for example； motion） is given； we find
conditions （opposite directions）… of which abstraction has been made
in the conception of motion in general… which render possible a
contradiction or opposition （not indeed of a logical kind）… and
which from pure positives produce zero = 0。 We are therefore not
justified in saying that all reality is in perfect agreement and
harmony； because no contradiction is discoverable among its
conceptions。* According to mere conceptions； that which is internal is
the substratum of all relations or external determinations。 When；
therefore； I abstract all conditions of intuition； and confine
myself solely to the conception of a thing in general； I can make
abstraction of all ext