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rea may be divided into three regions： first； the Black Belt； in which the farmers were black； the soil fertile； the plantations large； the credit evil at its worst； and the yield of cotton per acre the least； second； the white districts； where the soil was the poorest； the farms small； the workers nearly all white； and the yield per acre better than on the fertile Black Belt lands； third； the regions in which the races were nearly equal in numbers or where the whites were in a slight majority； with soil of medium fertility； good methods of agriculture； and； owing to better controlled labor； the best yield。 In ether words； Negroes； fertile soil； and poor crops went together； and on the other hand the whites got better crops on less fertile soil。 The Black Belt has never again reached the level of production it had in 1880。 But the white district kept improving slowly。
〃By the use of commercial fertilizers； vast regions once considered barren have been brought into profitable cultivation； and really afford a more reliable and constant crop than the rich alluvial lands of the old slave plantations。 In nearly every agricultural county in the South there is to be observed； on the one hand； this section of fertile soils； once the heart； of the old civilization； now abandoned by the whites； held in tenantry by a dense Negro population； full of dilapidation and ruin； while on the other hand； there is the region of light； thin soils； occupied by the small white freeholder； filled with schools； churches； and good roads； and all the elements of a happy； enlightened country life。〃
All the systems devised for handling Negro labor proved to be only partially successful。 The laborer was migratory； wanted easy work； with one or two holidays a week； and the privilege of attending political meetings； camp meetings； and circuses。 A thrifty Negro could not make headway because his fellows stole from him or his less energetic relations and friends visited him and ate up his substance。 One Alabama planter declared that he could not raise a turkey； a chicken； a hog； or a cow； and another asserted that 〃a hog has no more chance to live among these thieving Negro farmers than a June bug in a gang of puddle ducks。〃 Lands were mortgaged to the supply houses in the towns； the whites gradually deserted the country； and many rice and cotton fields grew up in weeds。 Crop stealing at night became a business which no legislation could ever completely stop。 A traveler has left the following description of 〃a model Negro farm〃 in 1874。 The farmer purchased an old mule on credit and rented land on shares or for so many bales of cotton； any old tools were used； corn； bacon； and other supplies were bought on credit； and a crop lien was given； a month later； corn and cotton were planted on soil that was not well broken up； the Negro 〃would not pay for no guano〃 to put on other people's land； by turns the farmer planted and fished； plowed and hunted； hoed and frolicked； or went to 〃meeting。〃 At the end of the year he sold his cotton； paid part of his rent and some of his debt； returned the mule to its owner； and sang：
Nigger work hard all de year； White man tote de money。
The great landholdings did not break up into small farms as was predicted； though sales were frequent and in 1865 enormous amounts of land were put on the market。 After 1867； additional millions of acres were offered at small prices； and tax and mortgage sales were numerous。 The result of these operations； however； was a change of landlords rather than a breaking up of large plantations。 New men； Negroes； merchants； and Jews became landowners。 The number of small farms naturally increased but so in some instances did the land concentrated into large holdings。
It was inevitable that conditions of Negro life should undergo a revolutionary change during the reconstruction。 The serious matter of looking out for himself and his family and of making a living dampened the Negro's cheerful spirits。 Released from the discipline of slavery and often misdirected by the worst of teachers； the Negro race naturally ran into excesses of petty criminality。 Even under the reconstruction governments the proportion of Negro to white criminals was about ten to one。 Theft was frequent； arson was the accepted means of revenge on white people； and murder became common in the brawls of the city Negro quarters。 The laxness of the marriage relation worked special hardship on the women and children in so many cases deserted by the head of the family。
Out of the social anarchy of reconstruction the Negroes emerged with numerous organizations of their own which may have been imitations of the Union League； the Lincoln Brotherhood； and the various church organizations。 These societies were composed entirely of blacks and have continued with prolific reproduction to the present day。 They were characterized by high names； gorgeous regalia； and frequent parades。 〃The Brothers and Sisters of Pleasure and Prosperity〃 and the 〃United Order of African Ladies and Gentlemen〃 played a large； and on the whole useful； part in Negro social life； teaching lessons of thrift； insurance； cooperation； and mutual aid。
The reconstructionists were not able in 1867…68 to carry through Congress any provision for the social equality of the races； but in the reconstructed states； the equal rights issue was alive throughout the period。 Legislation giving to the Negro equal rights in hotels； places of amusements； and common carriers； was first enacted in Louisiana and South Carolina。 Frequently the carpetbaggers brought up the issue in order to rid the radical ranks of the scalawags who were opposed to equal rights。 In Florida； for example； the carpetbaggers framed a comprehensive Equal Rights Law； passed it； and presented it to Governor Reed； who was known to be opposed to such legislation。 He vetoed the measure and thus lost the Negro support。 Intermarriage with whites was made legal in Louisiana and South Carolina and by court decision was permitted in Alabama and Mississippi； but the Georgia Supreme Court held it to be illegal。 Mixed marriages were few； but these were made occasions of exultation over the whites and of consequent ill feeling。
Charles Sumner was a persistent agitator for equal rights。 In 1871 he declared in a letter to a South Carolina Negro convention that the race must insist not only upon equality in hotels and on public carriers but also in the schools。 〃It is not enough； 〃 he said； 〃to provide separate accommodations for colored citizens even if in all respects as good as those of other persons 。 。 。 。 The discrimination is an insult and a hindrance； and a bar； which not only destroys comfort and prevents equality； but weakens all other rights。 The right to vote will have new security when your equal right in public conveyances； hotels； and common schools； is at last established； but here you must insist for yourselves by speech； petition； and by vote。〃 The Southern whites began to develop the 〃Jim Crow〃 theory of 〃separate but equal〃 accommodations。 Senator Hill of Georgia； for example； thought that hotels might have separate divisions for the two races； and he cited the division in the churches as proof that the Negro wanted separation。
About 1874； it was plain that the last radical Congress was nearly ready to enact social equality legislation。 This fact turned many of the Southern Unionist class back to the Democratic party； there to remain for a long time。 In 1875； as a sort of memorial to Sumner； Congress passed the Civil Rights Act； which gave to Negroes equal rights in hotels； places of amusement； on public carriers； and on juries。 Some Democratic leaders were willing to see such legislation enacted； because in the first place； it would have little effect except in the Border and Northern States； where it would turn thousands into the Democratic fold； and in the second place； because they were sure that in time the Supreme Court would declare the law unconstitutional。 And so it happened。
In regions where the more unprincipled radical leaders were in control； the whites lived at times in fear of Negro uprisings。 The Negroes were armed and insolent； and the whites were few and widely scattered。 Here and there outbreaks occurred and individual whites and isolated families suffered； but as a rule all such movements were crushed with much heavier loss to the Negroes than to the better organized whites。 Nevertheless everlasting apprehension for the safety of women and children kept the white men nervous。 General Garnett Andrews remarked about the situation in Mississippi：
〃I have never suffered such an amount of anguish and alarm in all my life。 I have served through the whole war as a soldier in the army of Northern Virginia； and saw all of it； but I never did experience 。 。 。 the fear and alarm and sense of danger which I felt that time。 And this was the universal feeling among the population； among the white people。 I think that both sides were alarmed and felt uneasy。 It showed itself upon the countenance of the people； it made many of them sick。 Men looked haggard and pale； after undergoing this sort of thing for six weeks or a month； and I have felt when I laid ＇sic＇ down that neither myself； nor my