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d was practiced without concealment。 In the latter state； the worthless Hell Hole Swamp was bought for 26；000 to be farmed by the Negroes but was charged to the state at 120；000。 A free restaurant maintained at the Capitol for the legislators cost 125；000 for one session。 The porter who conducted it said that he kept it open sixteen to twenty hours a day and that someone was always in the room eating and drinking or smoking。 When a member left； he would fill his pockets with cigars or with bottles of drink。 Forty different brands of beverages were paid for by the state for the private use of members； and all sorts of food； furniture； and clothing were sent to the houses of members and were paid for by the state as 〃legislative supplies。〃 On the bills appeared such items as imported mushrooms； one side of bacon； one feather bed； bustles； two pairs of extra long stockings； one pair of garters； one bottle perfume； twelve monogram cut glasses； one horse； one comb and brush； three gallons of whisky； one pair of corsets。 During the recess； supplies were sent out to the rural homes of the members。
The endorsement of railroad securities by the state also furnished a source of easy money to the dishonest official and the crooked speculator。 After the Civil War； in response to the general desire in the South for better railroad facilities； the 〃Johnson〃 governments began to underwrite railroad bonds。 When the carpetbag and Negro governments came in； the policy was continued but without proper safeguards。 Bonds were sometimes endorsed before the roads were constructed； and even excess issues were authorized。 Bonds were endorsed for some roads of which not a mile was ever built。 The White River Valley and Texas Railroad never came into existence； but it obtained a grant of 175；000 from the State of Arkansas。 Speaker Carter of the Louisiana Legislature received a financial interest in all railroad endorsement bills which he steered through the House。 Negro members were regularly bribed to vote for the bond steals。 A witness swore that in Louisiana it cost him 80；000 to get a railroad charter passed； but that the Governor's signature cost more than the consent of the legislature。
When the roads defaulted on the payment of interest； as most of them did； the burden fell upon the state。 Not all of the blame for this perverted legislation should be placed upon the corrupt legislators； however； for the lawyers who saw the bills through were frequently Southern Democrats representing supposedly respectable Northern capitalists。 The railroads as well as the taxpayers suffered from this pernicious lobbying； for the companies were loaded with debts and rarely profited by the loans。 Valuation of railroad property rapidly decreased。 The roads of Alabama which were valued in 1871 at 26；000；000 had decreased in 1875 to 9；500；000。
The foundation of radical power in the South lay in the alienation of the races which had been accomplished between 1865 and 1868。 To maintain this unhappy distrust； the radical leaders found an effective means in the Negro militia。 Under the constitution of every reconstructed state； a Negro constabulary was possible； but only in South Carolina； North Carolina； Louisiana； and Mississippi were the authorities willing to risk the dangers of arming the blacks。 No governor dared permit the Southern whites to organize as militia。 In South Carolina the carpetbag governor； Robert K。 Scott； enrolled ninety…six thousand Negroes as members of the militia and organized and armed twenty thousand of them。 The few white companies were ordered to disband。 In Louisiana the governor had a standing army of blacks called the Metropolitan Guard。 In several states the Negro militia was used as a constabulary and was sent to any part of the state to make arrests。
In spite of this provocation there were； after the riots of 1866…67； comparatively few race conflicts until reconstruction was drawing to a close。 The intervening period was filled with the more peaceful activities of the Ku Klux Klan and the White Camellia。 But as the whites made up their minds to get rid of Negro rule； the clashes came frequently and always ended in the death of more Negroes than whites。* They would probably have continued with serious consequences if the whites had not eventually secured control of the government。
* Among the bloodiest conflicts were those in Louisiana at Colfax； Coushatta； and New Orleans in 1873…74； and at Vicksburg and Clinton； Mississippi； in 1874…75。
The lax election laws； framed indeed for the benefit of the party in power； gave the radicals ample opportunity to control the Negro vote。 The elections were frequently corrupt； though not a great deal of money was spent in bribery。 It was found less expensive to use other methods of getting out the vote。 The Negroes were generally made to understand that the Democrats wanted to put them back into slavery； but sometimes the leaders deemed it wiser to state more concretely that 〃Jeff Davis had come to Montgomery and is ready to organize the Confederacy again〃 if the Democrats should win； or to say that 〃if Carter is elected； he will not allow your wives and daughters to wear hoopskirts。〃 In Alabama many thousand pounds of bacon and hams were sent in to be distributed among 〃flood sufferers〃 in a region which had not been flooded since the days of Noah。 The Negroes were told that they must vote right and receive enough bacon for a year； or 〃lose their rights〃 if they voted wrongly。 Ballot…box stuffing developed into an art； and each Negro was carefully inspected to see that he had the right kind of ticket before he was marched to the polls。
The inspection and counting of election returns were in the hands of the county and state boards； which were controlled by the governor； and which had authority to throw out or count in any number of votes。 On the assumption that the radicals were entitled to all Negro votes； the returning boards followed the census figures for the black population in order to arrive at the minimum radical vote。 The action of the returning boards was specially flagrant in Louisiana and Florida and in the black counties of South Carolina。
Notwithstanding the fact that the very best arrangements had been made at Washington and in the states for the running of the radical machine； everywhere there were factional fights from the beginning。 Usually the scalawags declared hostilities after they found that the carpetbaggers had control of the Negroes and the inside track on the way to the best state and federal offices。 Later； after the scalawags had for the most part left the radicals； there were contests among the carpetbaggers themselves for the control of the Negro vote and the distribution of spoils。 The defeated faction usually joined the Democrats。 In Arkansas a split started in 1869 which by 1872 resulted in two state governments。 Alabama in 1872 and Louisiana in 1874…75 each had two rival governments。 This factionalism contributed largely to the overthrow of the radicals。
The radical structure； however； was still powerfully supported from without。 Relations between the Federal Government and the state governments in the South were close； and the policy at Washington was frequently determined by conditions in the South。 President Grant； though at first considerate； was usually consistently radical in his Southern policy。 This attitude is difficult to explain except by saying that Grant fell under the control of radical advisers after his break with Johnson； that his military instincts were offended by opposition in the South which his advisers told him was rebellious； and that he was impressed by the need of holding the Southern radical vote against the inroads of the Democrats。 After about 1869； Grant never really understood the conditions in the South。 He was content to control by means of Federal troops and thousands of deputy marshals。 For this policy the Ku Klux activities gave sufficient excuse for a time； and the continued story of 〃rebel outrages〃 was always available to justify a call for soldiers or deputies。 The enforcement legislation gave the color of law to any interference which was deemed necessary。
Federal troops served other ends than the mere preservation of order and the support of the radical state governments。 They were used on occasion to decide between opposing factions and to oust conservatives who had forced their way into office。 The army officers purged the Legislature of Georgia in 1870； that of Alabama in 1872； and that of Louisiana in 1875。 In 1875 the city government of Vicksburg and the state government of Louisiana were overturned by the whites； but General Sheridan at once intervened to put back the Negroes and carpetbaggers。 He suggested to President Grant that the conservatives be declared 〃banditti〃 and he would make himself responsible for the rest。 As soon as a State showed signs of going over to the Democrats or an important election was lost by the radicals； one House or the other of Congress in many instances sent an investigation committee to ascertain the reasons。 The Committees on the Condition of the South or on the Late Insurrectionary States were nearly always ready with reports to establish the necessity of