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ould not possibly assure him that he was fit for the suffrage。 For even Patton and Hampton must tell him that they knew better than he and that he should follow their advice。
The appeal made to freedmen by the Northern leaders was in every way more forceful； because it bad behind it the prestige of victory in war and for the future it could promise anything。 Until 1867； the principal agency in bringing about the separation of the races had been the Freedmen's Bureau which； with its authority； its courts； its rations； clothes； and its 〃forty acres and a mule；〃 did effective work in breaking down the influence of the master。 But to understand fully the almost absolute control exercised over the blacks in 1867…68 by alien adventurers； one must examine the workings of an oath…bound society known as the Union or Loyal League。 It was this order； dominated by a few radical whites； which organized； disciplined； and controlled the ignorant Negro masses and paralyzed the influence of the conservative whites。
The Union League of America had its origin in Ohio in the fall of 1862； when the outlook for the Union cause was gloomy。 The moderate policies of the Lincoln Administration had alienated those in favor of extreme measures； the Confederates had won military successes in the field； the Democrats had made some gains in the elections； the Copperheads* were actively opposed to the Washington Government； the Knights of the Golden Circle were organizing to resist the continuance of the war； and the Emancipation Proclamation had chilled the loyalty of many Union men； which was everywhere at a low ebb； especially in the Northern cities。 It was to counteract these depressing influences that the Union League movement was begun among those who were associated in the work of the United States Sanitary Commission。 Observing the threatening state of public opinion； members of this organization proposed that 〃loyalty be organized； consolidated and made effective。〃
* See 〃Abraham Lincoln and the Union〃； by Nathaniel W。 Stephenson （in 〃The Chronicles of America〃）； pp。 156…7； 234…5。
The first organization was made by eleven men in Cleveland； Ohio； in November 1862。 The Philadelphia Union League was organized a month later； and in January 1863； the New York Union League followed。 The members were pledged to uncompromising and unconditional loyalty to the Union； to complete subordination of political views to this loyalty； and to the repudiation of any belief in state rights。 The other large cities followed the example of Philadelphia and New York； and soon Leagues； connected in a loose federation； were formed all through the North。 They were social as well as political in their character and assumed as their task the stimulation and direction of loyal Union opinion。
As the Union armies proceeded to occupy the South； the Union League sent its agents among the disaffected Southern people。 Its agents cared for Negro refugees in the contraband camps and in the North。 In such work the League cooperated with the various Freedmen's Aid Societies； the Department of Negro Affairs； and later with the Freedmen's Bureau。 Part of the work of the League was to distribute campaign literature； and many of the radical pamphlets on reconstruction and the Negro problem bore the Union League imprint。 The New York League sent out about seventy thousand copies of various publications； while the Philadelphia League far surpassed this record； circulating within eight years four million five hundred thousand copies of 144 different pamphlets。 The literature consisted largely of accounts of 〃Southern outrages〃 taken from the reports of Bureau agents and similar sources。
With the close of the Civil War the League did not cease its active interest in things political。 It was one of the first organizations to declare for Negro suffrage and the disfranchisement of Confederates； it held steadily to this declaration during the four years following the war； and it continued as a sort of bureau in the radical Republican party for the purpose of controlling the Negro vote in the South。 Its representatives were found in the lobbies of Congress demanding extreme measures； endorsing the reconstruction policies of Congress； and condemning the course of the President。 After the first year or two of reconstruction； the Leagues in the larger Northern cities began to grow away from the strictly political Union League of America and tended to become mere social clubs for members of the same political belief。 The eminently respectable Philadelphia and New York clubs had little in common with the leagues of the Southern and Border States except a general adherence to the radical program。
Even before the end of the war the League was extending its organization into the parts of the Confederacy held by the Federal forces； admitting to membership the army officers and the leading Unionists； though maintaining for the sake of the latter 〃a discreet secrecy。〃 With the close of the war and the establishment of army posts over the South； the League grew rapidly。 The civilians who followed the army； the Bureau agents； the missionaries； and the Northern teachers formed one class of membership； and the loyalists of the hill and mountain country； who had become disaffected toward the Confederate administration and had formed such orders as the Heroes of America； the Red String Band； and the Peace Society； formed another class。 Soon there were added to these the deserters； a few old line Whigs who intensely disliked the Democrats； and others who decided to cast their lot with the victors。 The disaffected politicians of the up…country； who wanted to be cared for in the reconstruction； saw in the organization a means of dislodging from power the political leaders of the low country。 It has been estimated that thirty percent of the white men of the hill and mountain counties of the South joined the Union League in 1865…66。 They cared little about the original objects of the order but hoped to make it the nucleus of an anti…Democratic political organization。
But on the admission of Negroes into the lodges or councils controlled by Northern men the native white members began to withdraw。 From the beginning the Bureau agents； the teachers； and the preachers had been holding meetings of Negroes； to whom they gave advice about the problems of freedom。 Very early these advisers of the blacks grasped the possibilities inherent in their control of the schools； the rationing system； and the churches。 By the spring of 1866； the Negroes were widely organized under this leadership； and it needed but slight change to convert the Negro meetings into local councils of the Union League。* As soon as it seemed likely that Congress would win in its struggle with the President the guardians of the Negro planned their campaign for the control of the race。 Negro leaders were organized into councils of the League or into Union Republican Clubs。 Over the South went the organizers； until by 1868 the last Negroes were gathered into the fold。
* Of these teachers of the local blacks； E。 L。 Godkin； editor of the New York Nation； who had supported the reconstruction acts； said： 〃Worse instructors for men emerging from slavery and coming for the first time face to face with the problems of free life than the radical agitators who have undertaken the political guidance of the blacks it would be hard to meet with。〃
The native whites did not all desert the Union League when the Negroes were brought in。 Where the blacks were most numerous the desertion of whites was general； but in the regions where they were few some of the whites remained for several years。 The elections of 1868 showed a falling off of the white radical vote from that of 1867； one measure of the extent of loss of whites。 From this time forward the order consisted mainly of blacks with enough whites for leaders。 In the Black Belt the membership of native whites was discouraged by requiring an oath to the effect that secession was treason。 The carpetbagger had found that he could control the Negro without the help of the scalawag。 The League organization was soon extended and centralized； in every black district there was a Council； for the state there was a Grand Council； and for the United States there was a National Grand Council with headquarters in New York City。
The influence of the League over the Negro was due in large degree to the mysterious secrecy of the meetings； the weird initiation ceremony that made him feel fearfully good from his head to his heels； the imposing ritual； and the songs。 The ritual； it is said； was not used in the North； it was probably adopted for the particular benefit of the African。 The would…be Leaguer was informed that the emblems of the order were the altar； the Bible； the Declaration of Independence； the Constitution of the United States； the flag of the Union； censer； sword； gavel； ballot box； sickle； shuttle； anvil； and other emblems of industry。 He was told to the accompaniment of clanking chains and groans that the objects of the order were to preserve liberty； to perpetuate the Union； to maintain the laws and the Constitution； to secure the ascendancy of American institutions； to protect； defend； and strengthen