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enters of wirepulling and agencies for the distribution of spoils。 At the outset civil officers were ordered to retain their offices during good behavior； subject to military control。 But no local official was permitted to use his influence ever so slightly against reconstruction。 Since most of them did not favor the policy of Congress； thousands were removed as 〃obstacles to reconstruction。〃 The Governors of Georgia； Louisiana； Virginia； Mississippi； and Texas were displaced and others appointed in their stead。 All kinds of subordinate offices rapidly became vacant。 New appointments were nearly always carpetbaggers and native radicals who could take the 〃ironclad〃 oath。 The generals complained that there were not enough competent native 〃loyalists〃 to fill the offices； and frequently an army officer was installed as governor； treasurer； secretary of state； auditor； or mayor。 In nearly all towns； the police force was reorganized； and former Federal soldiers were added to the force； while the regular troops were used for general police purposes and for rural constabulary。
Over the administration of justice the military authorities exercised a close supervision。 Instructions were sent out to court officers covering the selection of juries； the suspension of certain laws； and the rules of evidence and procedure。 Courts were often closed； court decrees set aside or modified； prisoners released； and many cases reserved for trial by military commission。 Some commanders required juries to admit Negro members and insisted that all jurors take the 〃ironclad〃 test oath。 There was some attempt at regulating the Federal courts but without much success。
Since the state legislatures were forbidden to meet； much legislation was enacted through military orders。 Stay laws were enacted； the color line was abolished； new criminal regulations were promulgated； and the police power was invoked in some instances to justify sweeping measures； such as the prohibition of whisky manufacture in North Carolina and South Carolina。 The military governors levied； increased； or decreased taxes and made appropriations which the state treasurers were forced to pay； but they restrained the radical conventions； all of which wished to spend much money。 According to the Act of March 23； 1867； the generals and their appointees were to be paid by the United States； but in practice the running expenses of reconstruction were paid by the state treasurers。
Any attempt to favor the Confederate soldiers was frowned upon。 Laws providing wooden legs and free education for crippled Confederates were suspended。 Militia organizations and military schools were forbidden。 No uniform might be worn； no parades were permitted； no memorial and historical societies were to be organized； and no meeting of any kind could be held without a permit。 The attempt to control the press resulted in what one general called 〃a horrible uproar。〃 Editors were forbidden to express themselves too strongly against reconstruction； public advertising and printing were awarded only to those papers actively supporting reconstruction。 Several newspapers were suppressed； a notable example being the 〃Tuscaloosa Independent Monitor〃； whose editor； Ryland Randolph； was a picturesque figure in Alabama journalism and a leader in the Ku Klux Klan。
The military administration was thorough and； as a whole； honest and efficient。 With fewer than ten thousand soldiers； the generals maintained order and carried on the reconstruction of the South。 The whites made no attempt at resistance； though they were irritated by military rule and resented the loss of self…government。 But most Southerners preferred the rule of the army to the alternative reign of the carpetbagger； scalawag； and Negro。 The extreme radicals at the North； on the other hand； were disgusted at the conservative policy of the generals。 The apathy of the whites at the beginning of the military reconstruction excited surprise on all sides。 Not only was there no violent opposition； but for a few weeks there was no opposition at all。 The civil officials were openly unsympathetic； and the newspapers voiced dissent not untouched with disgust； others simply could not take the situation seriously because it seemed so absurd； many leaders were indifferent； while others among them； Generals Lee； Beauregard； and Longstreet； and Governor Pattonwithout approving the policy； advised the whites to cooperate with the military authorities and save all they could out of the situation。 General Beauregard； for instance； wrote in 1867： 〃If the suffrage of the Negro is properly handled and directed； we shall defeat our adversaries with their own weapons。 The Negro is Southern born。 With education and property qualifications he can be made to take an interest in the affairs of the South and in its prosperity。 He will side with the whites。〃
Northern observers who were friendly to the South or who disapproved of this radical reconstruction saw the danger more clearly than the Southerners themselves； who seemed not to appreciate the full implication of the situation。 In this connection the New York 〃Herald〃 remarked：
〃We may regard the entire ten unreconstructed Southern States； with possibly one or two exceptions； as forced by a secret and overwhelming revolutionary influence to a common and inevitable fate。 They are all bound to be governed by blacks spurred on by worse than blacks … white wretches who dare not show their faces in respectable society anywhere。 This is the most abominable phase barbarism has assumed since the dawn of civilization。 It was all right and proper to put down the rebellion。 It was all right perhaps to emancipate the slaves 。 。 。 。 But it is not right to make slaves of white men even though they may have been former masters of blacks。 This is but a change in a system of bondage that is rendered the more odious and intolerable because it has been inaugurated in an enlightened instead of a dark and uncivilized age。〃
The political parties rapidly grouped themselves for the coming struggle。 The radical Republican party indeed was in process of organization in the South even before the passage of the reconstruction acts。 Its membership was made up of Negroes； carpetbaggers； or Northern men who had come in as speculators； officers of the Freedmen's Bureau and of the army； scalawags or Confederate renegades； 〃Peace Society〃 men；* and Unionists of Civil War times； with a few old Whigs who could not yet bring themselves to affiliate with the Democrats。 At first it seemed that a respectable number of whites might be secured for the radical party； but the rapid organization of the Negroes checked the accession of whites。 In the winter and spring of 1866…67； the Negroes near the towns were well organized by the Union League and the Freedmen's Bureau and then； after the passage of the reconstruction acts； the organizing activities of the radical chieftains shifted to the rural districts。 The Union League was greatly extended； Union League conventions were held to which local whites were not admitted； and the formation of a black man's party was well on the way before the registration of the voters was completed。 Visiting statesmen from the North； among them Henry Wilson of Massachusetts and 〃Pig Iron〃 Kelley of Pennsylvania； toured the South in support of the radical program； and the registrars and all Federal officials aided in the work。
* See 〃The Day of the Confederacy〃； by Nathaniel W。 Stephenson （in 〃The Chronicles of America〃）； p。 121； footnote。
The whites； slow to comprehend the real extent of radicalism； were finally aroused to the necessity of organizing； if they were to influence the Negro and have a voice in the conventions。 The old party divisions were still evident。 With difficulty a portion of the Whigs was brought with the Democrats into one conservative party during the summer and fall of 1867； though many still held aloof。 The lack of the old skilled leadership was severely felt。 In places where the white man's party was given a name； it was called 〃Democratic and Conservative；〃 to spare the feelings of former Whigs who were loath to bear the party name of their quondam opponents。
The first step in the military reconstruction was the registration of voters。 In each State a central board of registrars was appointed by the district commander and a local board for every county and large town。 Each board consisted of three membersall radicalswho were required to subscribe to the 〃ironclad〃 oath。 In several states one Negro was appointed to each local board。 The registrars listed Negro voters during the day； and at night worked at the organization of a radical Republican party。 The prospective voters were required to take the oath prescribed in the Reconstruction Act； but the registrars were empowered to go behind the oath and investigate the Confederate record of each applicant。 This authority was invoked to carry the disfranchisement of the whites far beyond the intention of the law in an attempt to destroy the leadership of the whites and to register enough Negroes to outvote them at the polls。 For this purpose the registration was continued until October 1； 1867； and an active campaign of education and organization carried on。