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whites about their sins in regard to slavery and to point out to them how far in their general ignorance and backwardness they fell short of enlightened people。
The Bureau courts were frequently conducted in an 〃illegal and oppressive manner；〃 with 〃decided partiality for the colored people； without regard to justice。〃 For this reason they were suspended for a time in Louisiana and Georgia by General Steedman and General Fullerton； and cases were then sent before military courts。 Men of the highest character were dragged before the Bureau tribunals upon frivolous complaints； were lectured； abused； ridiculed； and arbitrarily fined or otherwise punished。 The jurisdiction of the Bureau courts weakened the civil courts and their frequent interference in trivial matters was not conducive to a return to normal conditions。
The inferior agents； not sufficiently under the control of their superiors； were responsible for a great deal of this bad feeling。 Many of them held radical opinions as to the relations of the races； and inculcated these views in their courts； in the schools； and in the new Negro churches。 Some were charged with even causing strikes and other difficulties in order to be bought off by the whites。 The tendency of their work was to create in the Negroes a pervasive distrust of the whites。
The prevalent delusion in regard to an impending division of the lands among the blacks had its origin in the operation of the war…time confiscation laws； in some of the Bureau legislation； and in General Sherman's Sea Island order； but it was further fostered by the agents until most blacks firmly believed that each head of a family was to get 〃40 acres and a mule。〃 This belief seriously interfered with industry and resulted also in widespread swindling by rascals who for years made a practice of selling fraudulent deeds to land with red； white； and blue sticks to mark off the bounds of a chosen spot on the former master's plantation。 The assistant commissioners labored hard to disabuse the minds of the Negroes； but their efforts were often neutralized by the unscrupulous attitude of the agents。
As the contest over reconstruction developed in Washington； the officials of the Bureau soon recognized the political possibilities of their institution。 After midyear of 1866； the Bureau became a political machine for the purpose of organizing the blacks into the Union League； where the rank and file were taught that reenslavement would follow Democratic victories。 Nearly all of the Bureau agents aided in the administration of the reconstruction acts in 1867 and in the organization of the new state and local governments and became officials under the new regime。 They were the chief agents in capturing the solid Negro vote for the Republican party。
Neither of the two plans for guiding the freedmen into a place in the social orderthe 〃Black Laws〃 and the Freedmen's Bureauwas successful。 The former contained a program which was better suited to actual conditions and which might have succeeded if it had been given a fair trial。 These laws were a measure of the extent to which the average white would then go in 〃accepting the situation〃 so far as the blacks were concerned。 And on the whole the recognition of Negro rights made in these laws； and made at a time when the whites believed that they were free to handle the situation； was remarkably fair。 The Negroes lately released from slavery were admitted to the enjoyment of the same rights as the whites as to legal protection of life； liberty； and property； as to education and as to the family relation； limited only by the clear recognition of the principles of political inferiority and social separation。 Unhappily this legislation was not put to the test of practical experience because of the Freedmen's Bureau； it was nevertheless skillfully used to arouse the dominant Northern party to a course of action which made impossible any further effort to treat the race problem with due consideration to actual local conditions。
Much of the work of the Freedmen's Bureau was of only temporary benefit to both races。 The results of its more permanent work were not generally good。 The institution was based upon the assumption that the Negro race must be protected from the white race。 In its organization and administration it was an impossible combination of the practical and the theoretical； of opportunism and humanitarianism； of common sense and idealism。 It failed to exert a permanently wholesome influence because its lesser agents were not held to strict accountability by their superiors。 Under these agents the alienation of the two races began； and the ill feelings then aroused were destined to persist into a long and troubled future。
CHAPTER V。 THE VICTORY OF THE RADICALS
The soldiers who fought through the war to victory or to defeat had been at home nearly two years before the radicals developed sufficient strength to carry through their plans for a revolutionary reconstruction of the Southern states。 At the end of the war； a majority of the Northern people would have supported a settlement in accordance with Lincoln's policy。 Eight months later a majority； but a smaller one； would have supported Johnson's work had it been possible to secure a popular decision on it。 How then did the radicals gain the victory over the conservatives？ The answer to this question is given by James Ford Rhodes in terms of personalities： 〃Three men are responsible for the Congressional policy of Reconstruction： Andrew Johnson； by his obstinacy and bad behavior； Thaddeus Stevens； by his vindictiveness and parliamentary tyranny； Charles Sumner； by his pertinacity in a misguided humanitarianism。〃 The President stood alone in his responsibility； but his chief opponents were the ablest leaders of a resolute band of radicals。
Radicalism did not begin in the Administration of Andrew Johnson。 Lincoln had felt its covert opposition throughout the war； but he possessed the faculty of weakening his opponents； while Johnson's conduct usually multiplied the number and the strength of his enemies。 At first the radicals criticized Lincoln's policy in regard to slavery； and after the Emancipation Proclamation they shifted their attack to his 〃ten percent〃 plan for organizing the state governments as outlined in the Proclamation of December 1863。 Lincoln's course was distasteful to them because he did not admit the right of Congress to dictate terms； because of his liberal attitude towards former Confederates； and because he was conservative on the Negro question。 A schism among the Republican supporters of the war was with difficulty averted in 1864； when Fremont threatened to lead the radicals in opposition to the 〃Union〃 party of the President and his conservative policy。
The breach was widened by the refusal of Congress to admit representatives from Arkansas and Louisiana in 1864 and to count the electoral vote of Louisiana and Tennessee in 1865。 The passage of the Wade…Davis reconstruction bill in July 1864； and the protests of its authors after Lincoln's pocket veto called attention to the growing opposition。 Severe criticism caused Lincoln to withdraw the propositions which he had made in April 1865； with regard to the restoration of Virginia。 In his last public speech； he referred with regret to the growing spirit of vindictiveness toward the South。 Much of the opposition to Lincoln's Southern policy was based not on radicalism； that is； not on any desire for a revolutionary change in the South； but upon a belief that Congress and not the executive should be entrusted with the work of reorganizing the Union。 Many congressional leaders were willing to have Congress itself carry through the very policies which Lincoln had advocated； and a majority of the Northern people would have endorsed them without much caring who was to execute them。
The murder of Lincoln； the failure of the radicals to shape Johnson's policy as they had hoped； and the continuing reaction against the excessive expansion of the executive power added strength to the opposition。 But it was a long fight before the radical leaders won。 Their victory was due to adroit tactics on their own part and to mistakes； bad judgment； and bad manners on the part of the President。 When all hope of controlling Johnson had been given up； Thaddeus Stevens and other leaders of similar views began to contrive means to circumvent him。 On December 1； 1865； before Congress met； a caucus of radicals held in Washington agreed that a joint committee of the two Houses should be selected to which should be referred matters relating to reconstruction。 This plan would thwart the more conservative Senate and gain a desirable delay in which the radicals might develop their campaign。 The next day at a caucus of the Union party the plan went through without arousing the suspicion of the supporters of the Administration。 Next； through the influence of Stevens； Edward McPherson； the clerk of the House； omitted from the roll call of the House the names of the members from the South。 The radical program was then adopted and a week later the Senate concurred in the action of the House as to the appointment of a Joint Committee on Reconstruction。
On the issues before Congress