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nted； if the discussion related solely to the immediate issue between the United States and Huerta； he declined to extend the scope of the conference so as to admit the right of the United States to interfere in the internal affairs of Mexico。 The conference accomplished nothing so far as the immediate issue was concerned。 The dictator did not make reparation for the 〃affronts and indignities〃 he had committed； but his day was over。 The advance of the Constitutionalists southward compelled him in July to abandon the capital and leave the country。 Four months later the American forces were withdrawn from Vera Cruz。 The 〃A B C〃 Conference； however barren it was of direct results； helped to allay suspicions of the United States in Hispanic America and brought appreciably nearer a 〃concert of the western world。〃
While far from exercising full control throughout Mexico； the 〃first chief〃 of the Constitutionalists was easily the dominant figure in the situation。 At home a ranchman； in public affairs a statesman of considerable ability； knowing how to insist and yet how to temporize； Carranza carried on a struggle； both in arms and in diplomacy； which singled him out as a remarkable character。 Shrewdly aware of the advantageous circumstances afforded him by the war in Europe； he turned them to account with a degree of skill that blocked every attempt at defeat or compromise。 No matter how serious the opposition to him in Mexico itself； how menacing the attitude of the United States； or how persuasive the conciliatory disposition of Hispanic American nations； he clung stubbornly and tenaciously to his program。
Even after Huerta had been eliminated； Carranza's position was not assured； for Francisco； or 〃Pancho；〃 Villa； a chieftain whose personal qualities resembled those of the fallen dictator； was equally determined to eliminate him。 For a brief moment； indeed； peace reigned。 Under an alleged agreement between them； a convention of Constitutionalist officers was to choose a provisional President； who should be ineligible as a candidate for the permanent presidency at the regular elections。 When Carranza assumed both of these positions； Villa declared his act a violation of their understanding and insisted upon his retirement。 Inasmuch as the convention was dominated by Villa； the 〃first chief〃 decided to ignore its election of a provisional President。
The struggle between the Conventionalists headed by Villa and the Constitutionalists under Carranza plunged Mexico into worse discord and misery than ever。 Indeed it became a sort of three…cornered contest。 The third party was Emiliano Zapata； an Indian bandit； nominally a supporter of Villa but actually favorable to neither of the rivals。 Operating near the capital； he plundered Conventionalists and Constitutionalists with equal impartiality； and as a diversion occasionally occupied the city itself。 These circumstances gave force to the saying that Mexico was a 〃land where peace breaks out once in a while！〃
Early in 1915 Carranza proceeded to issue a number of radical decrees that exasperated foreigners almost beyond endurance。 Rather than resort to extreme measures again； however； the United States invoked the cooperation of the Hispanic republics and proposed a conference to devise some solution of the Mexican problem。 To give the proposed conference a wider representation； it invited not only the 〃A B C〃 powers； but Bolivia； Uruguay； and Guatemala to participate。 Meeting at Washington in August； the mediators encountered the same difficulty which had confronted their predecessors at Niagara Falls。 Though the other chieftains assented； Carranza； now certain of success； declined to heed any proposal of conciliation。 Characterizing efforts of the kind as an unwarranted interference in the internal affairs of a sister nation； he warned the Hispanic republics against setting up so dangerous a precedent。 In reply Argentina stated that the conference obeyed a 〃lofty inspiration of Pan…American solidarity； and； instead of finding any cause for alarm； the Mexican people should see in it a proof of their friendly consideration that her fate evokes in us； and calls forth our good wishes for her pacification and development。〃 However； as the only apparent escape from more watchful waiting or from armed intervention on the part of the United States； in October the seven Governments decided to accept the facts as they stood； and accordingly recognized Carranza as the de facto ruler of Mexico。
Enraged at this favor shown to his rival； Villa determined deliberately to provoke American intervention by a murderous raid on a town in New Mexico in March； 1916。 When the United States dispatched an expedition to avenge the outrage； Carranza protested energetically against its violation of Mexican territory and demanded its withdrawal。 Several clashes； in fact； occurred between American soldiers and Carranzistas。 Neither the expedition itself； however； nor diplomatic efforts to find some method of cooperation which would prevent constant trouble along the frontier served any useful purpose； since Villa apparently could not be captured and Carranza refused to yield to diplomatic persuasion。 Carranza then proposed that a joint commission be appointed to settle these vexed questions。 Even this device proved wholly unsatisfactory。 The Mexicans would not concede the right of the United States to send an armed expedition into their country at any time； and the Americans refused to accept limitations on the kind of troops that they might employ or on the zone of their operations。 In January； 1917； the joint commission was dissolved and the American soldiers were withdrawn。 Again the 〃first chief〃 had won！
On the 5th of February a convention assembled at Queretaro promulgated a constitution embodying substantially all of the radical program that Carranza had anticipated in his decrees。 Besides providing for an elaborate improvement in the condition of the laboring classes and for such a division of great estates as might satisfy their particular needs； the new constitution imposed drastic restrictions upon foreigners and religious bodies。 Under its terms； foreigners could not acquire industrial concessions unless they waived their treaty rights and consented to regard themselves for the purpose as Mexican citizens。 In all such cases preference was to be shown Mexicans over foreigners。 Ecclesiastical corporations were forbidden to own real property。 No primary school and no charitable institution could be conducted by any religious mission or denomination； and religious publications must refrain from commenting on public affairs。 The presidential term was reduced from six years to four； reelection was prohibited； and the office of Vice President was abolished。
When； on the 1st of May； Venustiano Carranza was chosen President； Mexico had its first constitutional executive in four years。 After a cruel and obstinately intolerant struggle that had occasioned indescribable suffering from disease and starvation； as well as the usual slaughter and destruction incident to war； the country began to enjoy once more a measure of peace。 Financial exhaustion； however； had to be overcome before recuperation was possible。 Industrial progress had become almost paralyzed； vast quantities of depreciated paper money had to be withdrawn from circulation； and an enormous array of claims for the loss of foreign life and property had rolled up。
CHAPTER XI。 THE REPUBLICS OF THE CARIBBEAN
The course of events in certain of the republics in and around the Caribbean Sea warned the Hispanic nations that independence was a relative condition and that it might vary in direct ratio with nearness to the United States。 After 1906 this powerful northern neighbor showed an unmistakable tendency to extend its influence in various ways。 Here fiscal and police control was established； there official recognition was withheld from a President who had secured office by unconstitutional methods。 Nonrecognition promised to be an effective way of maintaining a regime of law and order； as the United States understood those terms。 Assurances from the United States of the full political equality of all republics； big or little； in the western hemisphere did not always carry conviction to Spanish American ears。 The smaller countries in and around the Caribbean Sea； at least； seemed likely to become virtually American protectorates。
Like their Hispanic neighbor on the north； the little republics of Central America were also scenes of political disturbance。 None of them except Panama escaped revolutionary uprisings； though the loss of life and property was insignificant。 On the other hand； in these early years of the century the five countries north of Panama made substantial progress toward federation。 As a South American writer has expressed it； their previous efforts in that direction 〃amid sumptuous festivals； banquets and other solemn public acts〃 at which they 〃intoned in lyric accents daily hymns for the imperishable reunion of the isthmian republics；〃 had been as illusory as they were frequent。 Despite the mediation of the United States and Mexico in 1906； while the latter was still ruled by Diaz； the struggle in which Nicaragua； Hon