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by the United States two more republicsCuba and Panamacame into being； thus increasing the number of political offshoots from Spain in America to eighteen。 Another result of this interposition was the creation of what were substantially American protectorates。 Here the United States did not deprive the countries concerned of their independence an d sovereignty； but subjected them to a kind of guardianship or tutelage； so far as it thought needful to insure stability； solvency； health； and welfare in general。 Foremost in the northern group of Hispanic nations； Mexico； under the guidance of Diaz； marched steadily onward。 Peace； order； and law； an increasing population； internal wealth and well…being； a flourishing industry and commerce； suitable care for things mental as well as material； the respect and confidence of foreignersthese were blessings which the country had hitherto never beheld。 The Mexicans； once in anarchy and enmity created by militarists and clericals； came to know one another in friendship； and arrived at something like a national consciousness。
In 1889 there was held the first conference on educational problems which the republic had ever had。 Three years later a mining code was drawn up which made ownership inviolable on payment of lawful dues； removed uncertainties of operation； and stimulated the industry in a remarkable fashion。 Far less beneficial in the long run was a law enacted in 1894。 Instead of granting a legal title to lands held by prescriptive rights through an occupation of many years； it made such property part of the public domain； which might be acquired； like a mining claim； by any one who could secure a grant of it from the Government。 Though hailed at the time as a piece of constructive legislation； its unfortunate effect was to enable large landowners who wished to increase their possessions to oust poor cultivators of the soil from their humble holdings。 On the other hand； under the statesmanlike management of Jose Yves Limantour； the Minister of Finance； the monetary situation at home and abroad was strengthened beyond measure； and banking interests were promoted accordingly。 Further； an act abolishing the alcabala； a vexatious internal revenue tax； gave a great stimulus to freedom of commerce throughout the country。 In order to insure a continuance of the new regime； the constitution was altered in three important respects。 The amendment of 1890 restored the original clause of 1857； which permitted indefinite reelection to the presidency； that of 1896 established a presidential succession in case of a vacancy； beginning with the Minister of Foreign Affairs； and that of 1904 lengthened the term of the chief magistrate from four years to six and created the office of Vice President。
In Central America two republics； Guatemala and Costa Rica； set an excellent example both because they were free from internal commotions and because they refrained from interference in the affairs of their neighbors。 The contrast between these two quiet little nations； under their lawyer Presidents； and the bellicose but equally small Nicaragua； Honduras； and Salvador； under their chieftains； military and juristic； was quite remarkable。 Nevertheless another attempt at confederation was made。 In 1895 the ruler of Honduras； declaring that reunion was a 〃primordial necessity；〃 invited his fellow potentates of Nicaragua and Salvador to unite in creating the 〃Greater Republic of Central America〃 and asked Guatemala and Costa Rica to join。 Delegates actually appeared from all five republics； attended fiestas； gave expression to pious wishes； and went home！ Later still； in 1902； the respective Presidents signed a 〃convention of peace and obligatory arbitration〃 as a means of adjusting perpetual disagreements about politics and boundaries； but nothing was done to carry these ideas into effect。
The personage mainly responsible for these failures was Jose Santos Zelaya； one of the most arrant military lordlets and meddlers that Central America had produced in a long time。 Since 1893 he had been dictator of Nicaragua； a country not only entangled in continuous wrangles among its towns and factions； but bowed under an enormous burden of debt created by excessive emissions of paper money and by the contraction of more or less scandalous foreign loans。 Quite undisturbed by the financial situation； Zelaya promptly silenced local bickerings and devoted his energies to altering the constitution for his presidential benefit and to making trouble for his neighbors。 Nor did he refrain from displays of arbitrary conduct that were sure to provoke foreign intervention。 Great Britain； for example； on two occasions exacted reparation at the cannon's mouth for ill treatment of its citizens。
Zelaya waxed wroth at the spectacle of Guatemala； once so active in revolutionary arts but now quietly minding its own business。 In 1906； therefore； along with parties of Hondurans； Salvadoreans； and disaffected Guatemalans； he began an invasion of that country and continued operations with decreasing success until； the United States and Mexico offering their mediation； peace was signed aboard an American cruiser。 Then； when Costa Rica invited the other republics to discuss confederation within its calm frontiers； Zelaya preferred his own particular occupation to any such procedure。 Accordingly； displeased with a recent boundary decision； he started along with Salvador to fight Honduras。 Once more the United States and Mexico tendered their good offices； and again a Central American conflict was closed aboard an American warship。 About the only real achievement of Zelaya was the signing of a treaty by which Great Britain recognized the complete sovereignty of Nicaragua over the Mosquito Indians； whose buzzing for a larger amount of freedom and more tribute had been disturbing unduly the 〃repose〃 of that small nation！
To the eastward the new republic of Cuba was about to be born。 Here a promise of adequate representation in the Spanish Cortes and of a local legislature had failed to satisfy the aspirations of many of its inhabitants。 The discontent was aggravated by lax and corrupt methods of administration as well as by financial difficulties。 Swarms of Spanish officials enjoyed large salaries without performing duties of equivalent value。 Not a few of them had come over to enrich themselves at public expense and under conditions altogether scandalous。 On Cuba； furthermore； was saddled the debt incurred by the Ten Years' War； while the island continued to be a lucrative market for Spanish goods without obtaining from Spain a corresponding advantage for its own products。
As the insistence upon a removal of these abuses and upon a grant of genuine self…government became steadily more clamorous； three political groups appeared。 The Constitutional Unionists； or 〃Austrianizers；〃 as they were dubbed because of their avowed loyalty to the royal house of Bourbon…Hapsburg； were made up of the Spanish and conservative elements and represented the large economic interests and the Church。 The Liberals； or 〃Autonomists；〃 desired such reforms in the administration as would assure the exercise of self…government and yet preserve the bond with the mother country。 On the other hand； the Radicals； or 〃Nationalists〃the party of 〃Cuba Free〃would be satisfied with nothing short of absolute independence。 All these differences of opinion were sharpened by the activities of a sensational press。
》From about 1890 onward the movement toward independence gathered tremendous strength； especially when the Cubans found popular sentiment in the United States so favorable to it。 Excitement rose still higher when the Spanish Government proposed to bestow a larger measure of autonomy。 When； however； the Cortes decided upon less liberal arrangements； the Autonomists declared that they had been deceived； and the Nationalists denounced the utter unreliability of Spanish promises。 Even if the concessions had been generous； the result probably would have been the same； for by this time the plot to set Cuba free had become so widespread； both in the island itself and among the refugees in the United States； that the inevitable struggle could not have been deferred。
In 1895 the revolution broke out。 The whites； headed by Maximo Gomez； and the negroes and mulattoes by their chieftain； Antonio Maceo； both of whom had done valiant service in the earlier war； started upon a campaign of deliberate terrorism。 This time they were resolved to win at any cost。 Spurning every offer of conciliation； they burned； ravaged； and laid waste； spread desolation along their pathway； and reduced thousands to abject poverty and want。
Then the Spanish Government came to the conclusion that nothing but the most rigorous sort of reprisals would check the excesses of the rebels。 In 1896 it commissioned Valeriano Weyler； an officer who personified ferocity； to put down the rebellion。 If the insurgents had fancied that the conciliatory spirit hitherto displayed by the Spaniards was due to irresolution or weakness； they found that these were not the qualities of their new opponent。 Weyler； instead of trying to suppress the rebellion by hurrying detachments of troops first to one spot and then to anot