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and the methods of conveyance so cumbersome and expensive that the people of one province were practically strangers to their neighbors。
Matters of the mind and of the soul were under the guardianship of the Church。 More than merely a spiritual mentor； it controlled education and determined in large measure the course of intellectual life。 Possessed of vast wealth in lands and revenues； its monasteries and priories； its hospitals and asylums； its residences of ecclesiastics； were the finest buildings in every community； adorned with the masterpieces of sculptors and painters。 A village might boast of only a few squalid huts； yet there in the 〃plaza；〃 or central square； loomed up a massively imposing edifice of worship； its towers pointing heavenward； the sign and symbol of triumphant power。
The Church； in fact； was the greatest civilizing agency that Spain and Portugal had at their disposal。 It inculcated a reverence for the monarch and his ministers and fostered a deep…rooted sentiment of conservatism which made disloyalty and innovation almost sacrilegious。 In the Spanish colonies in particular the Church not only protected the natives against the rapacity of many a white master but taught them the rudiments of the Christian faith； as well as useful arts and trades。 In remote places； secluded so far as possible from contact with Europeans； missionary pioneers gathered together groups of neophytes whom they rendered docile and industrious； it is true； but whom they often deprived of initiative and selfreliance and kept illiterate and superstitious。
Education was reserved commonly for members of the ruling class。 As imparted in the universities and schools； it savored strongly of medievalism。 Though some attention was devoted to the natural sciences； experimental methods were not encouraged and found no place in lectures and textbooks。 Books； periodicals； and other publications came under ecclesiastical inspection； and a vigilant censorship determined what was fit for the public to read。
Supreme over all the colonial domains was the government of their majesties； the monarchs of Spain and Portugal。 A ministry and a council managed the affairs of the inhabitants of America and guarded their destinies in accordance with the theories of enlightened despotism then prevailing in Europe。 The Spanish dominions were divided into viceroyalties and subdivided into captaincies general； presidencies； and intendancies。 Associated with the high officials who ruled them were audiencias； or boards； which were at once judicial and administrative。 Below these individuals and bodies were a host of lesser functionaries who； like their superiors； held their posts by appointment。 In Brazil the governor general bore the title of viceroy and carried on the administration assisted by provincial captains； supreme courts； and local officers。
This control was by no means so autocratic as it might seem。 Portugal had too many interests elsewhere； and was too feeble besides； to keep tight rein over a territory so vast and a population so much inclined as the Brazilian to form itself into provincial units； jealous of the central authority。 Spain； on its part； had always practised the good old Roman rule of 〃divide and govern。〃 Its policy was to hold the balance among officials； civil and ecclesiastical； and inhabitants； white and colored。 It knew how strongly individualistic the Spaniard was and realized the full force of the adage； 〃I obey； but I do not fulfill！ 〃 Legislatures and other agencies of government directly representative of the people did not exist in Spanish or Portuguese America。 The Spanish cabildo； or town council； however； afforded an opportunity for the expression of the popular will and often proved intractable。 Its membership was appointive； elective； hereditary； and even purchasable； but the form did not affect the substance。 The Spanish Americans had an instinct for politics。 〃Here all men govern；〃 declared one of the viceroys； 〃the people have more part in political discussions than in any other provinces in the world； a council of war sits in every house。〃
CHAPTER II。 〃OUR OLD KING OR NONE〃
The movement which led eventually to the emancipation of the colonies differed from the local uprisings which occurred in various parts of South America during the eighteenth century。 Either the arbitrary conduct of individual governors or excessive taxation had caused the earlier revolts。 To the final revolution foreign nations and foreign ideas gave the necessary impulse。 A few members of the intellectual class had read in secret the writings of French and English philosophers。 Othershad traveled abroad and came home to whisper to their countrymen what they had seen and heard in lands more progressive than Spain and Portugal。 The commercial relations； both licit and illicit； which Great Britain had maintained with several of the colonies had served to diffuse among them some notions of what went on in the busy world outside。
By gaining its independence； the United States had set a practical example of what might be done elsewhere in America。 Translated into French； the Declaration of Independence was read and commented upon by enthusiasts who dreamed of the possibility of applying its principles in their own lands。 More powerful still were the ideas liberated by the French Revolution and Napoleon。 Borne across the ocean； the doctrines of 〃Liberty； Fraternity； Equality 〃stirred the ardent…minded to thoughts of action； though the Spanish and Portuguese Americans who schemed and plotted were the merest handful。 The seed they planted was slow to germinate among peoples who had been taught to regard things foreign as outlandish and heretical。 Many years therefore elapsed before the ideas of the few became the convictions of the masses； for the conservatism and loyalty of the common people were unbelieveably steadfast。
Not Spanish and Portuguese America； but Santo Domingo； an island which had been under French rule since 1795 and which was tenanted chiefly by ignorant and brutalized negro slaves； was the scene of the first effectual assertion of independence in the lands originally colonized by Spain。 Rising in revolt against their masters； the negroes had won complete control under their remarkable commander； Toussaint L'Ouverture； when Napoleon Bonaparte； then First Consul； decided to restore the old regime。 But the huge expedition which was sent to reduce the island ended in absolute failure。 After a ruthless racial warfare； characterized by ferocity on both sides； the French retired。 In 1804 the negro leaders proclaimed the independence of the island as the 〃Republic of Haiti；〃 under a President who； appreciative of the example just set by Napoleon； informed his followers that he too had assumed the august title of 〃Emperor〃！ His immediate successor in African royalty was the notorious Henri Christophe； who gathered about him a nobility garish in color and taste including their sable lordships； the 〃Duke of Marmalade〃 and the 〃Count of Lemonade〃； and who built the palace of 〃Sans Souci〃 and the countryseats of 〃Queen's Delight〃 and 〃King's Beautiful View；〃 about which cluster tales of barbaric pleasure that rival the grim legends clinging to the parapets and enshrouding the dungeons of his mountain fortress of 〃La Ferriere。〃 None of these black or mulatto potentates； however； could expel French authority from the eastern part of Santo Domingo。 That task was taken in hand by the inhabitants themselves； and in 1809 they succeeded in restoring the control of Spain。 Meanwhile events which had been occurring in South America prepared the way for the movement that was ultimately to banish the flags of both Spain and Portugal from the continents of the New World。 As the one country had fallen more or less tinder the influence of France； so the other had become practically dependent upon Great Britain。 Interested in the expansion of its commerce and viewing the outlying possessions of peoples who submitted to French guidance as legitimate objects for seizure； Great Britain in 1797 wrested Trinidad from the feeble grip of Spain and thus acquired a strategic position very near South America itself。 Haiti； Trinidad； and Jamaica； in fact； all became Centers of revolutionary agitation and havens of refuge for。 Spanish American radicals in the troublous years to follow。
Foremost among the early conspirators was the Venezuelan； Francisco de Miranda； known to his fellow Americans of Spanish stock as the 〃Precursor。〃 Napoleon once remarked of him： 〃He is a Don Quixote； with this differencehe is not crazy 。 。 。 。 The man has sacred fire in his soul。〃 An officer in the armies of Spain and of revolutionary France and later a resident of London； Miranda devoted thirty years of his adventurous life to the cause of independence for his countrymen。 With officials of the British Government he labored long and zealously； eliciting from them vague promises of armed support and some financial aid。 It was in London； also； that he organized a group of sympathizers into the secret society called the 〃Grand Lodge of America。〃 With it； or with its branches in France and Spain； many of the leaders of the subsequent revolution came to be identified。
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